Book Information / Buy the book
Critical Thinking Skills
For each chapter, a list of skills is then presented in a matrix. The skills matrix serves as a brief reminder and review so that you can quickly go over the thinking skills that were presented in each chapter. The most interesting and challenging of the exercises involves applying the skills to a variety of different sorts of contexts. This active learning component will make it more likely that you will remember to use what you are learning when you need the skills in real world settings. In the jargon of cognitive psychology, it promotes transfer of learning.
Click on the tabs below to view the content for each chapter.
Chapter 1 - Thinking: An Introduction
The skills listed under this rubric include those that are needed to recognize processes involved in your own thinking.
Skill |
Description |
Examples of Use |
| a. Recognizing the difference between System 1 and System 2 Thinking | System 1 thinking is fast and automatic; System 2 is slower and more effortful. System 1 is informed by System 2. | If you are deciding whether to trust someone, your first and fast response reflects System 1; a slower more thoughtful response based on what you know about the person reflects System 2. System 1 is more likely to be accurate when an expert has worked in a field with regular feedback so that judgments can become self-correcting. |
| b. Developing the disposition of a Critical Thinker (CT) | CTs are willing to plan, be flexible, persistent, willing to correct errors, mindful, and able to achieve consensus when necessary. | A politician with the disposition of a CT gathers and considers information to make decisions that are in the best interest of the citizens, admits when wrong, and is able to persuade others that the chosen decision is best. |
Chapter 2 - Thinking Starts Here: Memory as the Mediator of Cognitive Processes
Review of Memory Skills:
The Acquisition, Retention, and Retrieval of Knowledge
Category description: The skills listed under this rubric include those that are needed understand human memory and to improve attention, monitoring, and memory skills.
Skill |
Description |
Examples of Use |
| a. monitoring your attention | When reading, reading, listening, or viewing information that you need to know be aware of how well you are paying attention. | If you are reading a book, it is easy to move your eyes across the words without getting any meaning. Stop at end of each section and write a sentence or two about what you have read as a way to monitor your attention. |
| b. developing an awareness of the influence of stereotypes and other beliefs on what we remember | Our beliefs about groups of people influence what we attend to and what we remember about them. | If, for example, you believe that overweight people are lazy, be especially vigilant for ways this belief is determining what you pay attention to and what you remember about an overweight friend. |
| c. making abstract information meaningful as an aid to comprehension and recall | Concrete information that you are able to visualize is easier to recall than abstract concepts that are not easily visualized. | Abstract concepts such as some principles in physics or government are difficult to comprehend and recall. Relate them to something that is already known and meaningful. |
| d. using advance organizers to anticipate new information and to prepare for reading | Information that provides a guide for learning can be helpful when viewed before learning. | Most books have a table of contents that you should read carefully before reading the text because the organizing structure will make learning and remembering easier. |
| e. organizing information so that it can be recalled more easily | Random lists of items are more difficult to recall than information that is organized into categories. | Organize information in ways that are meaningful to you. For example, when learning human anatomy, organize parts according to their role in the body, proximity to each other, or some other categorization. |
| f. overlearning because you know that it will increase the probability and accuracy of recall | Memory traces are strengthened when you review newly learned materials several times after the initial learning. | Review any topic you recently learned as a way of ensuring long term retention. |
| g. recognizing that although you may be very confident that you are recalling an event accurately, there is a high probability that your memory is not as accurate as it feels | People are often highly confident about memories that are inaccurate. | By understanding that you may be confident in your memory for some event and that this memory may be inaccurate, you can avoid many errors based on using that memory (e.g., wrongfully convicting someone based on eye witness testimony). |
| h. generating retrieval cues at both acquisition and retrieval | Isolated information is more difficult to recall than information that has many connections in memory. | When learning something, link the new information to something that you already know. Look for connections so that the newly learned information will be easier to recall. |
| i. practicing recall for information that you are intentionally trying to learn | This is called the “testing effect.” By repeatedly recalling information, it gets easier to recall in the future. | When you finish learning a new skills such as how to use new software, try new examples of how it might be used and continue to use the software spaced over many days and weeks until it is well-learned. |
| j. monitoring how well you are learning | While you are learning something new, make judgments about how well you are learning. | Be sure that you can summarize newly learned information and estimate how well you are learning. If the learning is not going well, exert more effort in the learning process. |
| k. using external memory aids | An external aid is a written list or calendar reminder, among others. | If you need to do something at some point in the future, use an alarm system on you smart phone or write it down where you will see it when it needs to be done. |
| l. applying cognitive interview techniques | Cognitive interview is a series of techniques that can help people recall events, these techniques include being complete, changing the order of recall, and changing perspective. | When trying to remember where you left your phone, consider the order of events forward and backward when you last used it and try to “see” these events from different viewpoints. |
| m. developing an awareness of biases in memory so that you can consider the way your own beliefs, attitudes, and background knowledge could be influencing what and how you remember | People tend to recall information that that supports a favored conclusion and to recall events that are vivid, personal, and familiar. | Deliberately seek and attend to information that disconfirms a belief and learn to discount (not ignore) vivid, personal, and familiar events. Remember that “quiet” disasters such as deaths from driving are more frequent than ones that involve a group of people at one time, such as a plane crash, yet many more people fear plane crashes. |
| n. employing keywords and images, rhymes, places, and first letters, as internal memory aids | Mnemonics are memory aids that individuals use to help them recall information. | To remember a list of points you need to list in response to an essay question, use the first letters to make a word or sentence or visualize them at different locations along a route. |
Chapter 3 - The Relationship Between Thought and Language
Review of Thought and Language Skills
Category description: The skills listed under this rubric include those that are needed to comprehend and defend against the persuasive techniques that are embedded in everyday language (also known as natural language).
Skill |
Description |
Examples of Use |
| a. recognizing and defending against the inappropriate use of emotional language, labeling, name calling, ambiguity, vagueness, and arguments by etymology |
This is an assortment of common misleading verbal techniques based on language usage in which a bias for or against a position is created with the connotative meaning of the words used to describe and define the concepts. |
CT recognizes the use of biased language in numerous contexts such as the following examples: (a) accidental killing of US troops referred to as "friendly fire"; (b) use of labels such as "prochoice" and "pro-life" to create favorable impressions; (c) reports of research that "suggests" a finding instead of stating the results; (d) use of the term "disinformation" instead of "lies"; (e) calling an opponent a "pinko"; (f) using obscure terminology as a way of inhibiting comprehension; (g) arguing that homosexuality must be sick because the word "gay" originally meant lewd and lascivious. |
| b. developing the ability to detect misuse of definitions, reification, euphemism, and bureaucratese | These techniques mislead by using arbitrary definitions, treating a construct as though it physically exits, substituting a more “polite” term for the one that is intended, and using stilted language |
In a discussion of whether alcoholism is a disease, CT knows that the answer depends on the way the term "disease" is defined. A hypothetical construct is defined and then treated as though it were objectively real such as the use of terms like "self-defeating personality" to attribute blame to women who are battered. Euphemism is substituting “bathroom tissue” for “toilet paper” (which can also be thought of a euphemism). “Witnesseth” in legal documents is bureaucratese. |
| c. thinking about the reason for a communication, the background knowledge of the listener, and the context when deciding what and how to communicate | Six rules: tell listener what they want to know, don’t say what they already know, vary style according to listener characteristics, be truthful, use a simple style, use context to clarify meaning. | If telling a child about your job as a programmer, explain in simple language how you write the information that makes computers do tasks and show a simple example. |
| d. understanding the use of framing with leading questions and negation |
A framed question or negation creates an expectation for the type of response that is expected |
CT recognizes the bias in questions like, "Which of the presidential candidates is worse?" (implication that both are bad) and "Don’t you agree that the company plan is sure to work?" (bias toward a positive response). |
| e. using analogies appropriately, which includes examining the nature of the similarity and its relationship to the conclusion |
Analogies are effective persuasive techniques--good analogies are based on underlying relationships which are validly transferable between the analogy and base domain |
In response to a suggestion that welfare recipients serve on welfare boards, a board member replied that this was like suggesting that the mentally retarded serve on the boards for their mental institutions. CT asks if the analogy between the mentally retarded (who cannot act intelligently) and welfare recipients is valid. |
| f. deliberately giving a variety of examples when thinking about members of a category so that you are not thinking about category members in terms of a prototype (e.g., thinking about many ways to be successful, not just the most common examples like making a high salary) | People tend to think about examples from a category in terms of the most typical member—for example a robin or sparrow for a bird. | By deliberately giving atypical answers, you might respond with penguin or emu when asked about a bird. |
| g. recognizing the emotional components of some words and the way word choices can affect how you think and feel | Words have cognitive and emotive meanings. | Mother’s cookies have an appealing name even if you know they are baked by a large international corporation and not a lone sweet mother who cares about you. |
| h. recognizing when an anchor may be biasing your judgments about a quantity or cost and deliberately trying other values that could be alternative anchors | An anchor is a beginning number that influences your judgments. | You are likely to give more money to a charity when s request for a donation that starts at $1000 than if it starts at $5. |
| i. employing questioning and explaining as a skill for text comprehension |
The ability to state a main idea and identify supplementary ideas are essential for comprehension |
An extended presentation is made in which the speaker includes a main idea, supplemental information, and irrelevant information. CT can summarize meaningfully what has been said. |
| j. practicing at retrieval of information so that remembering becomes more accurate and easier with spaced practice | One of the best ways to learn something is to practice remembering it. | In order to remember these skills, answer questions spaced over time about each skill and then check the accuracy of your answer. |
|
k. selecting and using graphic organizers (linear arrays, hierarchies, networks, matrices, flow charts)
|
Converting information from verbal to graphic formats is one measure of comprehension that can be useful in applying the information provided |
Information about a spatial topic, such as the plan for a new community, is presented in prose. CT can convert the information to a spatial representation. Alternatively, CT can chart relationship information when it is presented in prose (e.g., matrices, hierarchies). |
Chapter 4 - Reasoning: Drawing Deductively Valid Conclusions
Review of Deductive Reasoning Skills
Category description: The skills presented in this chapter are used to determine if a conclusion is valid--that it, it must be true if the premises are true. These skills are used in many contexts including law, medicine, financial projections, and the science.
Skill |
Description |
Examples of Use |
| a. discriminating between deductive and inductive reasoning |
Recognizing the differences between reasoning from a rule to an individual (deductive) and from individual observations to formulate rules (inductive) |
Inferring attitudes from behaviors (inductive) and predicting behavior from someone’s stated attitudes (deductive). |
| b. identifying premises and conclusions |
Being able to recognize what is being advocated and the reasons for it |
Reading a ballot issue and knowing the positions that are supported and why they are being supported |
| c. using quantifiers in reasoning |
Understanding the use of terms like "every," "some," and "not" |
Knowing that "doctors recommend" means "some doctors recommend." |
| d. using circle diagrams to check category membership |
Combining class membership categories to determine what can be concluded with circles that represent category relationships |
Some high school students studied Latin. All students who studied Latin went to college. Can we conclude that some high school students went to college? Solve this with circle diagrams by combining all combinations of representations of the premises. |
| e. solving categorical syllogisms with verbal rules | There are 7 rules that can used to determine if the conclusion from a categorical syllogism is valid. | All students need math. Harry is not a student. Is it valid that Harry does not need math? Check for middle term (one not in conclusion) and whether it is distributed in a premise. Check for negation in the conclusion and premises and whether the conclusion is particular. By going though each rule, you can determine if a conclusion is valid. |
| f. understanding the difference between truth and validity | Knowing that a conclusion can be valid, but false |
It may be valid to believe that welfare spending should be increased given a set of premises, but the premises and the conclusion may be wrong. |
| g. recognizing when syllogisms are being used to change attitudes |
A particular attitude is being advocated when premises are followed with evaluative statements that support a belief |
For example, "Juveniles commit many crimes. They need alternatives to crime. So, fund activities for juveniles. |
| h. using linear diagrams to solve linear syllogisms | Being able to arrange objects along a dimension | Kalin arrived before Joe or Roberto, but after Alex. Who arrived first? |
| i. watching for marked adjectives | Mark adjectives bias evaluations | "How dumb is he?" is not a neutral question. |
| j. using the principles of linear orderings as an aid to clear communication | It is easier to understand linear oderings when the first term in the second premise is the second term in the first premise and when all statements are positive. | Running burns more calories than walking, and walking burns more calories than sitting . |
| k. reasoning with "if, then" statements | “If, then” statements express contingency relationships. | If Heather wants to graduate, she will study. The “if” part is the antecedent, the “then” part is the consequence. |
| l. avoiding the fallacies of confirming the consequent and denying the antecedent | Denying the antecedent is saying that the “if” part did not occur; affirming the consequent is saying that the consequent occurred. | Look at example above. Saying that Heather does not want to graduate does NOT mean that she will not study. Saying that she will study does not mean that she wants to graduate. |
| m. examining reasoning in everyday contexts for missing quantifiers | Often statements will not include terms like “all,” “some” or “no,” | Saying that children who are abused will have difficulty in personal relationships does not mean “all” children who are abused although that may be want people hear. |
Chapter 5 - Analyzing Arguments
Review of Argument Analysis Skills
Argument analysis skills are those skills that are needed to judge how well reasons and evidence support a conclusion. They involve considering counterevidence, stated and unstated assumptions, and the overall strength of the argument.
Skill |
Description |
Examples of Use |
| identifying arguments |
An argument is an attempt to persuade a listener or reader with at least one reason and one conclusion |
We must increase social security benefits because they have not kept pace with inflation. But, some elderly are rich and don’t need an increase. |
| b. diagramming the structure of an argument | In an argument, conclusions are supported by reasons. There are also counterarguments, assumptions, and limiting conditions. |
Cheating is OK because everyone does it and teachers expect students to cheat becomes:
|
| c. evaluating premises for their acceptability | Premises are acceptable if we can reasonably believe they are true |
The reason “Everyone does it” is not acceptable.
The reason “Teachers expect students to cheat” is not acceptable. |
| d. judging the credibility of an information source and knowing the difference between expertise in factual matters and in value matters |
Judgments of credibility and bias are central to determining the quality of information. Credible sources have expertise, and first-hand knowledge, and no basis for gain. |
The executives of a car company tout the safety features of their new model car. A veterinarian argues for the use of animals in research. |
| e. determining the consistency, relevance to the conclusion, and adequacy in the way premises support a conclusion | Premises need to relate to the conclusion and they need to be consistent with each other. | Cotton candy is a healthy snack because it is all natural and high in nutrients. In this argument, the premise that sugar, the only ingredient in cotton candy, is all natural may be true, but it does not make it a healthy snack. It is not high in nutrients so this argument is unacceptable. |
| f. remembering to consider missing components by assuming a different perspective |
The most persuasive information may be omitted, either deliberately or accidentally |
"Candidate Dogooder is great because he is kind to his dog." Is other information omitted like he is a convicted rapist? |
| g. assessing the overall strength of an argument | Good arguments have strong support. There may be counterarguments, but even when they are considered, overall strength can be good. | The political parties cannot get along even though some members of each party are willing to compromise. The failure to pass good laws is evidence that they cannot get along. This is a fairly strong argument because the evidence (premise) is strong and even though it is weakened some by the counterargument, it is still strong. |
| h. recognizing, labeling and explaining what is wrong with each of the twenty-one fallacies that was presented |
There are many common fallacies-- deliberately weak arguments, claims that X is true because there is no disconfirming evidence, association arguments |
We cannot ban semi-automatic weapons because all guns will be banned once we start. The health plan is bad because the conservative support it. Ghosts must exist because no one can prove that they don’t. |
| i. recognizing differences among opinion, reasoned judgment, and fact |
Opinion is an unsupported preference; reasoned judgment is a conclusion based on reasons for believing it; facts have verifiable truth values |
CT can recognize the differences among: "Unions are needed for the protection of workers, and that’s a fact." "Sugar-O’s is a good cereal because it contains fiber." "Sugar-Os are a good cereal because I love the way Sugar-O’s taste." |
| j. understanding how visual arguments can be effective | Images can present conclusions and premises. | An image of a sexy teen admired by many is making the argument that it is good for teens to appear sexy. |
| k. judging your own arguments for their strength |
Arguments should be structured so that the reasons support what is being advocated. |
When writing an essay against the death penalty, the writer can identify her own reasons and counterarguments and show their relative strength. |
Chapter 6 - Thinking as Hypothesis Testing
Review of Hypothesis Testing Skills
Category description: The skills used in thinking as hypothesis testing are the same ones used in scientific reasoning--the accumulation of observations, formulation of beliefs or hypotheses, and then using the information collected to decide if the information collected confirms or disconfirms the hypotheses.
Skill |
Description |
Examples of Use |
| a. recognizing the need for and using operational definitions |
An operational definition is an explicit set of procedures that specify how to recognize and measure a construct. |
An advocate for a group claims that unreported spousal abuse is increasing at an alarming rate. CT will ask how spousal abuse has been defined and measured. |
| b. understanding the need to isolate and control variables in order to make strong causal claims |
In determining cause, a single |
A commercial states that cholesterol levels were reduced when a group began exercising and using margarine. It concludes that margarine use reduces cholesterol. CT notes the confounding of exercise and margarine use and does not attribute the drop in cholesterol to margarine. |
| c. checking for adequate sample size and unbiased sampling when a generalization is made |
Valid generalizations from samples |
As part of a conversation, a young adult states that she knows that old people like to watch wrestling because her grandmother did. CT recognizes that this sample is too small and biased for generalizations about all old people. |
| d. being able to describe the relationship between any two variables as positive, negative, or unrelated |
Two variables are positively related |
A newspaper article states that over the last ten years marijuana use has steadily increased and Scholastic Achievement Test scores have decreased. CT can describe this as a negative relationship, but understands that the decline in marijuana probably did not cause the rise in test scores. |
| e. understanding the limits of correlational reasoning |
Although a significant correlation |
A social scientist shows that there has been steady increase in the number of single parent families and in the number of crimes committed by juveniles over the last 15 years. She concludes that single parent families are responsible for the increase in juvenile crime. CT notes that these data are correlational and cannot be used to determine cause. |
| f. seeking converging validity to increase your confidence in a decision |
The use of multiple types of measures that support the same conclusion is convergent validity. |
To decide if a program really does improve learning, gather data from multiple users and use different types of data such as school grades and standardized tests. |
| g. checking for and understanding the need for control groups |
A control group is used for comparison to understand if an intervention “worked.” We are limited in what we can conclude without a control group. |
When viewing test scores you may see that on average, 7th graders at your local school improved over the last 3 years. Without a control group, you cannot understand what this means. By comparing the scores with everyone in the state you may find that all scores were raised because the test was made much easier. |
| h. being aware of the bias in most estimates of variability |
Most data are variable, and people tend to underestimate variability. |
CT knows the even though he can name many outstanding graduates from a Snooty College, many students from that college did not have outstanding careers after graduation. Students are variable. |
| i. considering the relative "badness" of different sorts of errors |
Some errors are worse than others and because there is always uncertainty in hypothesis testing, the relative “badness” of an error needs to be considered. |
Under U.S. law it is worse to wrongly convict someone of a crime than it is to let a guilty person go free, so we require evidence that is “beyond a reasonable doubt” when deciding on a guilty verdict. |
| j. determining how self-fulfilling prophecies could be responsible for experimental results or every day observations |
When we believe that a certain outcome is likely we often act in ways that make it more likely. |
If you believe that soup cures a cold, you are more likely to judge cold symptoms as improved after having soup, even if there is no effect. |
| k. knowing when causal claims can and can't be made |
To decide if X caused Y to occur, X must occur before Y and you must be able to rule out other confounding variables that might have caused Y. |
If children who attended preschool are better readers you cannot know if going to preschool caused the improvement or some other variable such as richer kids attend preschool. This is why we need random assignment to groups to determine cause. |
Chapter 7 - Likelihood and Uncertainty: Understanding Probabilities
Review of Likelihood and Uncertainty Skills
Category description: The correct use of objective and subjective estimates of probability is a critical thinking skill because virtually every life event is probabilistic.
Skill |
Description |
Examples of Use |
| a. computing expected values in situations with known probabilities | An expected value is what is most likely to happen in the long run—over many trials. | The expected value of any probabilistic event can be computed by multiplying the probability of each outcome with its value. |
| b. recognizing when regression to the mean is operating and adjust predictions to take this phenomenon into account |
An extreme score on some measure is most likely followed by a score that is closer to the mean. |
It is a common phenomenon that a star "rookie" who excels in his or her first season performs closer to average in the second season. CT recognizes that this is an example of regression to the mean. |
| c. using the "and" rule to avoid conjunction errors |
The co-occurrence of two or more independent events is less likely than the occurrence of either one alone |
Physicians describe the typical heart attack victim as male and over 55. CT realizes that the typical heart attack victim is more likely to be either male or over 55 than both male and over 55. |
| d. using the "or" rule to calculate cumulative probabilities |
The probability of either of several (or more) probabilistic results is the sum of the probability of each events. |
If the chance of rain is ,5 for Saturday and for Sunday the probability of rain on exactly one of these days is .5 (rain Saturday is .5; not rain Saturday is .5. Each of these “branches” is connected to rain on Sunday which is .5 and not rain on Sunday, which is .5; thus rain on both days = ,25; rain Saturday only .25; rain Sunday only .25; rain both days .25). |
| e. recognizing and avoid gambler's fallacy |
Gambler’s fallacy is the belief that is a probabilistic event that has not occurred in recent trials it is more likely to occur. |
When flipping a fair coin someone who believes in this fallacy will predict that a head is more likely to occur if the previous 4 flips were tails. |
| f. utilizing base rates when making predictions |
The initial or a priori proportion of some group in the population is a valid guide for predicting likelihoods |
A speaker meets a "quiet man who is good with numbers." The speaker concludes that this man is more likely an accountant than a farmer. CT knows that the number of accountants in the population is small relative to farmers and predicts farmer as the more likely occupation |
| g. using tree diagrams as a decision making aid in probabilistic situations |
A tree diagram represents every possible outcome in a series of outcomes (e.g., birth of boys or girls) with probability values along each branch. |
A tree diagram for the problem about rain on one day in the weekend is
|
| h. adjusting risk assessments to account for the cumulative nature of probabilistic events |
The likelihood of two events occurring is always less than the less likely event. |
If the probability of becoming a professional basketball player is .01 and the probability of living in NY is .02, then the probability of becoming a professional basketball player and living in NY is less than .01. |
| i. understanding the differences among mean and median |
The median is the middle number in a series arranged in ascending (or descending order); the mean is the sum of all numbers divided by the number of numbers added together. |
If 3 friends earned $8, $20, and $500 an hour, the median is $20, the mean is $176 an hour—big difference. |
| j. avoiding overconfidence in uncertain situations |
By definition, there is uncertainty in probabilistic events, but most people are more confident in their decisions than the probabilities allow. |
The stock market is probabilistic with many random variations, yet some people invest too much money on a particular stock because they have underestimated the probability that the stock will continue to rise. |
| k. understanding the limits of extrapolation |
Extrapolation is using trends in data to make estimations of future events, a process that is meaningful only if it is not extended too far in time and other factors can be assumed to remain constant. |
The population council concludes that based on current birth rates there will be no resources to feed the multitudes by the year 2050. CT knows that the extrapolation is based on the assumption that there will be no changes in contraception, fertility practices, or food resources. |
| l. using probability judgments to improve decision making |
Most future events are uncertain. It is often possible to estimate the probability of outcomes which can lead to better decisions. |
If the probability of rain in your region is 68% in a particular month, it would not be a good idea to plan an outside wedding if the idea of rain on your wedding is highly aversive. |
| m. considering indicators like historical data, risks with different decision, and analogies when dealing with unknown risks |
New risks can be considered by using historical data, calculating the probability of component parts, and using analogies |
A chemical warfare plant is planned for your community. CT can think about risks by looking at other similar plants, estimating component risks, and using analogies from other chemical plants. |
Chapter 8 - Decision Making: It Is a Matter of Choice
Review of Decision Making Skills
Category description: The skills used in decision making are those used in framing a decision, generating and evaluating alternatives, and analyzing the outcome.
Skill |
Description |
Examples of Use |
| a. listing alternatives and considering the pros and cons of each |
Coming up with several possible ways to satisfy the goals of the decision |
Two alternatives are 1) Provide incentives to keep health care costs |
| b. reframing the decision so as to consider different types of alternatives |
The deliberate use of different ways of phrasing a decision that needs to be made |
Changing the wording in a decision such as "How can we provide low |
| c. recognizing the need to seek disconfirming evidence and deliberately seeking disconfirming evidence |
There is a pervasive bias to seek information that confirms what we believe to be true |
Make a conscious effort to find information that would not support the decision to have children when you are inclined to have children. |
| d. understanding the way that information that is readily recalled or information that appears representative of a random process can influence how decisions are made |
Information that is readily recalled seems more familiar and more frequent than information that is difficult to recall. |
We tend to overestimate the threat of events that are easy to recall such as a cruise boat sinking instead of events that really are more frequent such as diabetes. |
| e. considering how overly optimistic assessments bias the selection of alternatives |
People tend to believe that outcomes that they want to happen are more likely to occur than those they do not want to happen. |
People who buy lottery tickets wildly overestimate their chance of winning a large amount of money. |
| f. recognizing arguments that are based on entrapment and considering why the costs have been high |
Entrapment occurs when a course of action requires additional investments |
Shana decides to stick with her boyfriend who treats her badly because she has already invested several years in the relationship. |
| g. being mindful of the way liking can affect the evaluation of alternatives |
When we like someone we tend to evaluate information from that person as more accurate than from someone we dislike. |
If a friendly physician recommends an operation, we need to be as likely to get a second opinion as when the recommendation comes from an unfriendly physician. |
| h. evaluating positive assessments of alternatives that are based on reciprocity or familiarity |
Reciprocity is a powerful variable. We are likely to “repay” someone even when the “gift” we receive is worthless and unwanted. |
We are more likely to buy a product when we receive a sample than if we do not receive a sample. |
| i. seeking information to reduce uncertainty when making risky decisions |
Decisions involve future events and there is always uncertainty in the future. We can often reduce the uncertainty with more data gathering. |
If you want to know about employment opportunities for someone with a computer science degree, you would review various employment predictions including the ones from the Department of Labor. |
| j. preparing a decision making worksheet for important decisions |
It is a procedure for listing |
In deciding what to do about a revolution, the leaders could list possible actions, analyze and weigh them, and then calculate a decision. |
| k. understanding the distinction between the quality of a decision and its outcome |
Given the uncertainty of the future, sometimes a good decision will have a poor outcome and a poor decision will have a good outcome. |
You might win by betting all of your money on a horse race, but it is still a poor decision. |
| l. understanding the way emotional states like reactance and anger can affect the way we evaluate alternatives and behaving in ways that minimize their effects |
Reactance is wanting to do something we are not permitted to do, even if we would not want to do it if we were permitted. |
By forbidding teen lovers to see each other, they may increase their resolve to be together just because it is not permitted. |
| m. recognizing that hindsight analysis of a decision is usually biased and of limited value |
Hindsight analysis is the reevaluation |
After a parolee kills someone, many people want to fire the parole board. |
Chapter 9 - Development of Problem Solving Skills
Review of Problem Solving Skills
Category description: The skills used in problem solving are those that are needed to identify and define a problem, state the goal, generate, and evaluate solution paths.
Skill |
Description |
Examples of Use |
| a. planning and monitoring a strategy for finding a solution | When solving a problem a CT will be clear about stating the goal and the ways of getting from the start state to the goal. | If you want to save money for a new car, you need to know how much money you will need (cost of car, insurance, title, etc.) and make a plan for saving money in installations to reach your goal. |
| b. identifying any problem as either well-defined or ill-defined and adjust your solution plan according to the type of problem |
Most real-life problems are ill-defined; that is there are many possible goals and ways to achieve them |
Several ways of increasing sales are described. CT redefines the problem to include other ways to increase profits (e.g. cut inventory). |
| c. using graphs, diagrams, hierarchical trees, matrices, and models as solution aids |
It is useful to use a visual representation to solve many problems. |
Draw the information given in math and word problems as an aid to solving them. |
| d. devising a quality representation of a problem |
Visual representations of problems can assist with comprehension and serve as a problem solving aid |
A problem is described verbally. The task for the CT is to depict the information in a graphic display in order to solve it. |
| e. selecting the problem solving strategies that are appropriate for the problem |
There are many different strategies that can help solve problems, CT knows how to select from among them |
A problem involving categories of information is approached with a matrix, which is well suited for this sort of problem. |
| f. using all of the following strategies: mean-ends analysis; working backwards; simplification; generalization and specialization; random search and trial- and-error; rules; hints; split-half method; brainstorming; contradiction; analogies and metaphors; and consulting an expert |
Several strategies for solving problems were presented in the book. CT knows when each is the appropriate tool for solving a problem. |
When designing a desk with a large surface area that takes up only a small amount of space, use the method of contradiction—you may end up with a desk that expands and folds for storage. |
| g. demonstrating an awareness of functional fixedness so as to avoid it |
Functional fixedness is the inability to see how something can be used in a way that is different from its usual function. |
When you use a shoe as a hammer or a stapler to fix a hem, you are demonstrating that you can “break out of” functional fixedness. |
| h. distinguishing between relevant and irrelevant information |
In real life, we often have information available that is not relevant to solving a problem. |
Focusing on climate-related information can help us solve the problem of climate change without being side-tracked with irrelevant information that paints political parties in good or bad ways—political digressions unrelated to climate change. |
| i. understanding how world views can constrain the problem solving process |
We all operate in a culture and we often cannot “see” solutions that are not culturally acceptable. |
In some cultures people often barter for goods when money is short, but few people in cultures where this is not customary think about the possibility of bartering. |
| j. Recognizing the critical role of persistence |
One of the best predictors of success when solving problems is persisting until a good solution is found |
When encountering a difficult problem, CT doesn’t quit when a solution is not immediately obvious, but keeps working on it. |
Chapter 10 - Creative Thinking
Review of Skills for Creative Thinking
Category description: These skills are all designed to help people increase the flow of ideas--a process that should increase the probability of a creative (i.e., novel and good) response.
Skill |
Description |
Examples of Use |
| a. defining a problem in multiple ways |
Phrase the problem in several different ways to come up with different types of solutions |
Instead of asking "How can I get a new job?" ask "What do I really want from a job?" or "How can I have more money?" |
| b. brainstorming to increase the number of ideas produced |
Without censoring or evaluation, list as many solutions to the problems as possible |
In finding ways to save money, list every money savings idea you can. Best if done alone first and then in a group. |
| c. working with people from different backgrounds in order to increase the probability of bisociative thinking |
People from various backgrounds will approach novel problems in different ways. |
Form a diverse team to solve difficult problems such as how to improve the lives of poor people around the world. |
| d. considering the physical changes listed in the creative ideas checklist |
Generate and use lists of ways that a solution can vary |
If designing a new toy, list ways that toys can vary--size, color, etc. |
| e. arranging the environment to maximize intrinsic motivation |
Intrinsic motivation is often related to creative thinking. It is the desire to work on a problem because the process is enjoyable. |
Avoid setting time limits on solutions (to the extent possible) and paying for creative outcomes. |
| f. encouraging an attitude of risk taking |
Creative thinking is unusual by definition. We need to encourage people to take some risks and break away from traditions. |
Do not punish poor outcomes or failures to solve novel problems because these responses will discourage risk taking. |
| g. evaluating possible solutions using suggestions for altering products |
Think how you can combine, reverse, or substitute to create a novel product. |
When thinking about new ways to cook, combine ingredients that usually do not go together and substitute honey or apple sauce for sugar. |
| h. listing and combining attributes to devise a novel product |
Create a matrix of relevant attributes and then combine cells |
List the parts of a dress and the ways each can differ, then create combinations. |
| i. forming sentences about the problem using relational words |
Think about through, off, after, from and to when considering new ways to get something done. |
When planning a route with a mountain in the way, think about driving around it, over it, even through it, if that is possible. |
| j. evaluating solutions and other aspects of the problem along the dimensions of plus, minus, interesting |
List the positive, negative, and interesting aspects of various solutions |
Use these three columns to evaluate solutions to the problem of world hunger. |
| k. listing terms that are related to the problem before you attempt a solution |
Before attempting a solution, write down all terms that come to mind when you think about the problem |
When thinking about ways to improve the possibilities for peace in the Middle East, list all the relevant terms that come to mind in a 10-minute interval |
| l. gathering additional information |
Keep the problem in mind as you go about idea-enhancing activities |
Read, watch quality programs, write, etc. as you think about a problem |
| m. using analogies to make the unfamiliar known and distorting analogies to make the familiar unknown |
Apply solutions and ideas across different domains of knowledge |
Use knowledge about the ways animals keep cool to design a way to keep food cool. |
| n. visualizing the problem |
Image yourself as part of the problem and try to "see" it from other perspectives |
View the problem of teen violence from the perspective of the teens, police, victims, parents, etc. |
| o. using the hypothesis generating suggestions such as counterexamples, opposites, anomalous data, and the others |
Thinking about ways the opposite could be true (clothing could be warm and light), extrapolating from similar problems, and paying attention to outliers can help CT be more creative. |
Think why one person responded very differently from the other people—could it be a difference in how the question was understood. How can something be both hot and cold at the same time? |
| p. discouraging group cohesiveness so unusual thoughts can be considered |
When groups require that all decisions be unanimous, thet lose the input from unusual thinkers. |
Encourage people to come up with different sorts of solutions and to value disagreement. |
Chapter 11 - The Last Word
Review of Skills
Skill |
Description |
Examples of Use |
| a. When deciding which skill to use, think about the thinking skills framework. |
The thinking skills framework is 4 questions: What is the goal? What is known? Which skills will get you to your goal? Have your reached your goal? |
If you want to be healthy and happy, your goal is to make good health, career and personal decisions. The knowns are information about your strengths and weaknesses. Will you exercise regularly? Eat well? Study to achieve a career goal? Engage in meaningful relationships? This sort of long-term goal will need to be re-evaluated throughout your life span. |