Belize

Belize lies on the Caribbean coast of Central America. Recognized as a British colony in 1862, Belize was known as British Honduras until 1973. The territory's first general election, in 1954, was won by the People’s United Party (PUP). The PUP governed until 1984, when it was defeated by the United Democratic Party (UDP). The PUP returned to power in 1998 until the general election of 2008, won by the UDP. The UDP won a further term in 2012. Belize became independent, within the Commonwealth, in 1981. Much of the recent history of Belize has been dominated by a territorial dispute with Guatemala that still awaited a definitive resolution in the early 21st century. The capital is Belmopan. English is the official language.

Area and Population

Area:

22,965 sq km

Population (UN estimate, mid-2014):

339,758

Population density (mid-2014):

14.8 per sq km

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

73.7 (males 70.7; females 76.8)

Finance

GDP in current prices (UN estimates, 2012):

US $1,554m. ($4,795 per head)

Real GDP growth (World Bank estimate, 2012):

5.3%

Inflation (average change in consumer prices, 2013):

1.2%

Currency:

Belize dollar

Government and Politics

The Constitution of Belize came into effect at independence on 21 September 1981 and has been amended from time to time. Belize is a constitutional monarchy, with the British sovereign as Head of State. Executive authority is vested in the sovereign and is exercised by the Governor-General, who is appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister, must be of Belizean nationality, and acts, in almost all matters, on the advice of the Cabinet. The Governor-General is also advised by an appointed Belize Advisory Council. Legislative power is vested in the bicameral National Assembly, comprising a Senate (12 members appointed by the Governor-General) and a House of Representatives (31 members elected by universal adult suffrage for five years, subject to dissolution). The Governor-General appoints the Prime Minister and, on the latter’s recommendation, other ministers. The Cabinet is responsible to the House of Representatives.

Head of State:

HM Queen Elizabeth II

Head of Government:

Prime Minister Dean O. Barrow

Last election:

Legislative, 7 March 2012

Next election:

Legislative, due by March 2017

Recent political developments

General and municipal elections were held on 7 March 2012. The UDP secured re-election, albeit with a much reduced majority, winning 17 of the 31 legislative seats and 49.3% of the valid votes cast. The PUP garnered almost as many votes (49.1%), but this translated into just 14 seats in the House of Representatives. The UDP also performed well in the local elections, retaining control of six of the country’s nine municipalities, including Belmopan and Belize City. Prime Minister Barrow indicated that his priority at the beginning of a second term would be renegotiation of Belize’s debt-servicing obligations (see Economic Affairs).

A truce between criminal gangs in Belize City, which had been agreed in September 2011, with government mediation, disintegrated in April 2012 following a sharp rise in gang-related violence during that month. In response, the Government deployed a contingent of soldiers to Belize City, increased police patrols, and established vehicle checkpoints. In spite of these measures, a record 145 homicides occurred in 2012, although a decline in the murder rate was reported in 2013.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

Bolivia

The Republic of Bolivia is situated in South America. Independence from Spanish rule was achieved in 1825. Between 1969 and 1982 Bolivia remained under actual or quasi-military rule. Since the late 1980s civilian Governments have been destabilized by severe economic problems. Evo Morales, leader of the coca growers’ union and the Movimiento al Socialismo—Instrumento Político por la Soberanía de los Pueblos, was elected President in 2005 and returned for a second term in December 2009. Bolivia’s administrative capital is La Paz; its judicial capital is Sucre. The official languages are Aymará, Quechua and Spanish.

Area and Population

Area:

1,098,581 sq km

Population (UN estimate, mid-2014):

10,847,660

Population density (mid-2014):

9.9 per sq km

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

66.9 (males 64.8; females 69.2)

Finance

GDP in current prices (World Bank estimates, 2012):

US $27,035m. ($2,576 per head)

Real GDP growth (preliminary, 2013):

6.8%

Inflation (urban areas, average change in consumer prices, 2013):

5.7%

Currency:

boliviano

Government and Politics

A revised Constitution was signed into law in February 2009, which provided for greater autonomy for indigenous communities, enshrined state control over key economic sectors (most notably natural resources), imposed restrictions on the size of land holdings, removed Roman Catholicism as the state religion and aimed to make the judiciary more transparent and accountable. It also enlarged the Senado Nacional (Senate) and allowed the President, who is elected by direct suffrage for a five-year term, to seek re-election for a second consecutive term. Legislative power is held by the bicameral Congreso Nacional (Congress), comprising a Senate, with 36 members, and a Cámara de Diputados (Chamber of Deputies), comprising 130 members. Both houses are elected for a five-year term by universal adult suffrage. Executive power is vested in the President and the Cabinet, which is appointed by the President. If no candidate gains an absolute majority of votes, the President is chosen by the Congress. The country is divided, for administrative purposes, into nine departments, each of which is governed by a prefect.

Head of State:

Juan Evo Morales Aima

Head of Government:

Juan Evo Morales Aima

Last election:

Presidential and legislative, 6 December 2009

Next election:

Presidential and legislative, 12 October 2014

Recent political developments

The hitherto strong relations between the Morales administration and indigenous groups (see below) deteriorated in mid-2011 as a result of a government scheme to build a major road through indigenous territory in Cochabamba. Approximately 1,000 indigenous rights activists, who claimed that the construction of the highway breached multiple constitutional protections guaranteed to their communities and to the environment, began a 500-km protest march from Beni to La Paz in August. The police attempted to stop the march by force in the following month, prompting widespread condemnation of the authorities and the resignations of Minister of National Defence Cecilia Chacón Rendón and Minister of the Interior Sacha Sergio Llorenti Soliz in protest at the repression (they were replaced by Rubén Saavedra Soto and Wilfredo Franz Chávez Serrano, respectively); the march continued, none the less, reaching La Paz in October. Under increasing pressure, Morales terminated the highway project later that month, although the episode had severely damaged his popularity. Nevertheless, in February 2012 the legislature approved a non-binding referendum in Cochabamba on the road project. The plebiscite, due to take place by 10 May, was cancelled, following a recommendation by the UN, and a public consultation exercise was announced, to run from May until December. At the same time the Government announced the cancellation of its contract with the Brazilian company due to begin construction of the road. However, by October a new agreement had been signed with two Bolivian companies to undertake the first section of the project, leading to accusations that the Government’s consultation with local communities in the region, which still had two months to run, was not genuine. The Government’s declaration that the consultation process had been a success and showed strong support for the road project was questioned by an independent commission formed by representatives of the Catholic church and human rights groups. In its findings the commission alleged that communities had not been given full access to the facts, that only a small minority of residents had been consulted, and that bribes and gifts had distorted the result. Bolivia’s human rights ombudsman, Rolando Villena, was similarly critical, describing the process as ‘authoritarian, colonialist and unilateral’. In April 2013 Morales announced that the project would not be undertaken until extreme poverty had been eliminated in the communities affected by the scheme, and committed government expenditure of some US $14m. over the following two years for the provision of basic services. Indigenous leaders, however, remained sceptical about the Government’s intentions regarding the construction of the highway, which was widely predicted to resume in late 2015.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

Brazil

The Federative Republic of Brazil lies in South America. Brazil achieved independence from Portugal in 1822. From 1964 until 1985 Brazil was under military rule. In 1993 voters endorsed the retention of the presidential system. In 1998 Fernando Henrique Cardoso was re-elected for a second presidential term. He was succeeded in 2002 by Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva of the Partido dos Trabalhadores (PT), who was re-elected for a second term in 2006. Da Silva was, in turn, replaced by Dilma Rousseff, also of the PT, at an election in 2010. Brasília is the capital. The official language is Portuguese.

Area and Population

Area:

8,514,877 sq km

Population (mid-2013):

201,032,714

Population density (mid-2013):

23.6 per sq km

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

73.6 (males 70.1; females 77.3)

Finance

GDP in current prices (World Bank estimates, 2012):

US $2,252,664m. ($11,340 per head)

Real GDP growth (2013):

2.3%

Inflation (average change in consumer prices, 2013):

6.2%

Currency:

real

Government and Politics

Under the Constitution, which was promulgated on 5 October 1988, the country is a federal republic comprising 26 states and a Federal District (Brasília). Legislative power is exercised by the bicameral Congresso Nacional (National Congress), comprising the Senado Federal (Federal Senate—members elected by the majority principle in rotation for eight years) and the Câmara dos Deputados (Chamber of Deputies—members elected by a system of proportional representation for four years). The number of deputies is based on the size of the population. Election is by universal adult suffrage. Executive power is exercised by the President, elected by direct ballot for four years. The President appoints and leads the Cabinet. Each state has a directly elected Governor and an elected legislature. Judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Federal Court; the Higher Court of Justice; the regional federal courts; labour courts; electoral courts; military courts; and the courts of the states. For the purposes of local government, the states are divided into municipalities.

Head of State:

President Dilma Vana Rousseff

Head of Government:

President Dilma Vana Rousseff

Last election:

Presidential, second round, 31 October 2010

Next election:

Presidential and legislative, 5 October 2014

Recent political developments

A rise in public transport fares in early June 2013 gave rise to several weeks of public protests across the country, the worst civil unrest in Brazil for two decades, which, at its peak, on 20 June, involved over 1m. demonstrators. The protests began in São Paulo the day after the fare increase, on 11 June, with some 10,000 people gathering in the city centre. Violence broke out when the police attempted to disperse the crowds. By 17 June, as the FIFA Confederations Cup got under way, some 200,000 had taken to the streets of the major cities. Apart from the rise in transport costs demonstrators cited as their grievances the rate of inflation, widespread corruption, the massive public expenditure on preparations for the FIFA World Cup in 2014 and poor public services. On 24 June Rousseff, following a meeting with the organizers of the demonstration, the Movimento Passe Libre, along with state governors and city mayors, made a televised address in which she proposed that the National Congress approve a referendum on widespread political reform. The President, who was experiencing the first fall in popularity since taking office, also called for increased spending on public transport, health care and education. The following day, responding to one of the demands of the protesters, parliament rejected a controversial law that would have removed the role of federal prosecutors in conducting investigations into criminal activities within the Government, giving exclusive power to the police. Despite these measures, the protests continued, with a crowd of some 50,000 demonstrating outside a football stadium in Belo Horizonte at the time of the Confederation Cup semi-final match on 26 June. On 2 July Rousseff presented five proposed political reforms to be put to a national plebiscite by the start of October; this was declared unfeasible, however, by both Alves and Vice-President Michel Miguel Elias Temer Lulia, also of the PMDB. On 11 July the country’s major trade unions staged a general strike (the first in 22 years) to demand improvements in public services and a reduction in the working week to 40 hours. Although the organizers of the strike claimed that some 100,000 had participated, figures were thought to be considerably lower.

Two high-profile corruption scandals emerged in mid-2013. The first concerned alleged anti- competitive practices in relation to the construction and maintenance of the train and metro networks in São Paulo and Brasília, which involved several foreign engineering companies including Siemens (of Germany), Mitsui (of Japan) and Alstom (of France). An investigation into the possible price-rigging cartel by the Brazilian authorities was announced in mid-July. Siemens, which had admitted to belonging to the cartel in return for immunity from prosecution, also reported that it had paid bribes in order to secure the contracts to construct the São Paulo metro system. Major figures in the PSDB, namely Alckmin and Serra, were linked to the affair, but denied any involvement. In mid-August it was announced that the state of São Paulo planned to file a lawsuit against Siemens to recover funds lost to as a result of the actions of the cartel. Meanwhile, a news magazine, Epoca , claimed that state energy company Petrobras had been involved with paying bribes from companies involved with its foreign contracts to political parties, in particular the PMDB. On 26 August foreign minister Antonio Patriota resigned following a diplomatic incident with Bolivia (see Foreign Affairs). He was replaced by Luiz Alberto Figueiredo.

In late August 2013 the Supreme Federal Court rejected an appeal by José Dirceu against the sentence he received for his role in the mensalão scandal. The court’s sentencing in the trial, judged by some to be unusually harsh, was in keeping with the national sentiment in the wake of the street protests in June. However, in September the Supreme Federal Court made a controversial decision to allow the retrial in early 2014 of 12 of those who had appealed part of their convictions, including Dirceu and Genoíno. Two months later, on 13 November, the court voted that the gaol terms for 16 of those convicted be executed immediately. (Those like Dirceu who were among their number, but awaiting an appeal, were ordered to start serving their sentences for those crimes for which the verdict was final.) On 6 December Valdemar Costa Neto of the PR (formerly of the PL) resigned his parliamentary seat in order to avoid impeachment proceedings. In late February 2014 the Supreme Federal Court ruled that eight of those imprisoned over the scandal, including Dirceu, be absolved of the charge of conspiracy.

Meanwhile, in mid-September 2013 the PSB withdrew its two ministers from the Government in order that Eduardo Henrique Accioly Campos, Governor of the north-eastern state of Pernambuco, could run for President in the 2014 election. On 7 October, two days after she had failed to register her environmental movement, Rede Sustentabilidade, as a political party, Marina Silva joined the PSB and announced that she would support Campos in his campaign. On 28 November Silva officially announced Campos as the presidential candidate for the alliance between her ecological movement and the PSB.

On 25 January 2014 a demonstration in São Paulo of some 2,500 people in protest against the FIFA World Cup became violent; 135 people were reportedly arrested but all were subsequently released. Two weeks later in Rio de Janeiro a television cameraman was fatally wounded during violent clashes between police and demonstrators who had gathered to protest a 9% increase in bus fares.

President Rousseff carried out a minor cabinet reshuffle in late January 2014 in anticipation of the October elections. The appointments included that of José Henrique Paim Fernandes, of the PT, who became Minister of Education, while Arturo Chioro, also of the PT, was promoted to Minister of Health. In early February Campos launched his campaign for the presidency, accusing Rousseff of being ‘desperate’ at the thought of losing power and stressing the need for political change. By March there were signs that relations between the PT and the PMDB were becoming increasingly strained, with PMDB congressional leader João Paulo Cunha threatening to withdraw from the coalition unless the party’s number of ministries be increased from five to six. In an attempt to placate the PMDB Rousseff pledged the PT’s support in six states in the regional elections; none the less a number of PMDB deputies boycotted the swearing-in ceremony of new cabinet ministers the following week. Pressure on Rousseff increased when it was reported at this time that the opposition was to seek approval for a congressional inquiry into her handling of the purchase of an oil refinery in 2006, when as Lula’s chief of staff she presided over the advisory board of Petrobras. However, public support for the President reportedly remained high.

On 25 March 2014, after almost three years of debate and despite the efforts of congressional rebels to block it, a law was approved in the Chamber of Deputies that aimed to guarantee civil rights for the use of the internet. The inclusion of a controversial clause on ‘net neutrality’, whereby internet service providers would be unable to discriminate between websites, was the result of US spying allegations of mid-2013 (see Foreign Affairs).

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

Chile

The Republic of Chile mainly lies along the Pacific Coast of South America. Chile gained independence from Spain in 1818. In 1989 President Aylwin replaced President Pinochet, who had assumed power following a coup in 1973. Since the restoration of democracy, there has been a peaceful transfer of power following elections. In 2010 Sebastián Piñera took office as President. He was succeeded in 2014 by Michelle Bachelet (who had previously served as head of state in 2006–10). Santiago is the capital. The language is Spanish.

Area and Population

Area:

756,096 sq km

Population (mid-2014):

17,711,004

Population density (mid-2014):

23.4 per sq km

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

79.6 (males 76.8; females 82.5)

Finance

GDP in current prices (World Bank estimates, 2012):

US $269,869m. ($15,452 per head)

Real GDP growth (2013):

4.2%

Inflation (average change in consumer prices, 2013):

1.8%

Currency:

peso

Government and Politics

Chile is a republic, divided into 14 regions and a metropolitan area. Easter Island enjoys ‘special territory’ status within Chile. The Constitution that entered into force in 1981, described as a ‘transition to democracy’, separated the presidency from the junta and provided for presidential elections and for the re-establishment of the bicameral legislature. In 1989 a national referendum approved 54 reforms to the Constitution, including 47 proposed by the Government and seven by the military junta. Further amendments were adopted in 1991, 1994 and 2005. Under the terms of the Constitution, executive power is vested in the President, who is directly elected for a four-year term. The President is assisted by a Cabinet. Legislative power is vested in the bicameral Congreso Nacional (National Congress), comprising the 38-member Senado (Senate) and the 120-member Cámara de Diputados (Chamber of Deputies).

Head of State:

President Michelle Bachelet Jeria

Head of Government:

President Michelle Bachelet Jeria

Last election:

Presidential, second round, 15 December 2013

Next election:

Presidential and legislative, due November 2017

Recent political developments

A presidential poll was held on 17 November 2013. Former President Bachelet, contesting the election as the representative of the left-wing Nueva Mayoría bloc (comprising the Concertación coalition and the Partido Comunista), garnered 46.7% of the valid votes cast, compared with 25.0% for Evelyn Matthei Fornet of the governing UDI/RN coalition (redesignated as the Alianza). Marco Enríquez-Ominami Gumucio of the Partido Progresista was third-placed, with 11.0% of the ballot. In the second round of voting, which took place on 15 December, Bachelet was re-elected to the presidency with 62.2% of the ballot. Turnout in the two respective rounds was relatively low, at 49% and 42%. Legislative elections were conducted concurrently with the first round of the presidential contest. Nueva Mayoría attracted 47.7% of the vote and gained control of 67 of the 120 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, while the number of Alianza deputies declined to 49. Nueva Mayoría also secured a majority in the Senate. Bachelet took office on 11 March 2014. Included in her new Cabinet was Rodrigo Peñailillo of the Partido por la Democracia, who was appointed to the interior ministry, while his party colleagues Heraldo Muñoz and Nicolás Eyzaguirre were given the foreign affairs and education portfolios, respectively. Alberto Arenas of the Partido Socialista de Chile was named Minister of Finance and Luis Felipe Céspedes of the PDC Minister of the Economy. Bachelet’s campaign pledges had most notably included the provision of free higher education (to be financed by an increase in corporation tax) and constitutional reform. Although Nueva Mayoría’s legislative position was robust, opposition support would be required to modify the Constitution.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

Colombia

The Republic of Colombia lies in the north-west of South America. In 1819 Colombia achieved independence from Spain as part of Gran Colombia, which included Ecuador, Panama and Venezuela. For more than a century ruling power in Colombia has been shared between the Partido Conservador Colombiano and the Partido Liberal Colombiano. Since the 1960s Colombia has been destabilized by anti-government guerrilla insurgencies and by the activities of illegal drugs cartels. President Alvaro Uribe, who took office in 2002, made the improvement of domestic security a main priority of his Government. He was succeeded in 2010 by Juan Manuel Santos, also of the Partido de la U. Santos, who opened peace negotiations with the left-wing rebels in 2012, secured a second term in office in 2014. The capital is Bogotá. The language is Spanish.

Area and Population

Area:

1,141,748 sq km

Population (mid-2014):

47,661,787

Population density (mid-2014):

41.7 per sq km

Life expectancy (2012):

73.8 (males 70.2; females 77.5)

Finance

GDP in current prices (World Bank estimates, 2012):

US $369,606m. ($7,748 per head)

Real GDP growth (2013):

4.3%

Inflation (low-income families, average change in consumer prices, 2013):

1.9%

Currency:

peso

Government and Politics

A new 380-article Constitution took effect in July 1991. Executive power is exercised by the President (assisted by a Cabinet), who is elected for a four-year term by universal adult suffrage. A 1995 amendment allowed for the re-election of the President for a second term of office. Legislative power is vested in the bicameral Congress, consisting of the Senado (Senate—102 members elected for four years) and the Cámara de Representantes (House of Representatives—166 members elected for four years). Judicial power is ultimately exercised by the Supreme Court of Justice. The integrity of the state is ensured by the Constitutional Court. The Council of State serves as the supreme consultative body for the Government in matters of legislation and administration. The country is divided into 32 departments and one capital district.

Head of State:

President Juan Manuel Santos Calderón

Head of Government:

President Juan Manuel Santos Calderón

Last election:

Presidential, second round, 15 June 2014

Next election:

Legislative, due March 2018

Recent political developments

In November 2013 President Santos formally announced his intention to stand for re-election in the 2014 presidential elections. Oscar Iván Zuluaga was confirmed as the candidate for Uribe’s newly formed Centro Democrático (CD). The forthcoming elections were likely to be seen as a test of public support for the peace process with the FARC (see below). Santos himself stated that his re-election would be an endorsement of the process, while Uribe, a fierce opponent of the negotiations and a candidate for the Senate, led the campaign for Zuluaga.

At legislative elections held on 9 March 2014 the Partido de la U secured the largest representation overall, with 37 seats in the House of Representatives and 21 in the Senate. The PL secured 39 and 17 seats, while the PC won 27 and 18 seats, respectively. The CR garnered 16 lower house seats and nine senate seats. Uribe’s CD performed well with 19 lower house and 20 senate seats, respectively, but not as strongly as had been predicted. Uribe subsequently claimed that irregularities had taken place during the electronic vote counting. However, OAS observers declared that the election had been fairly conducted overall, although the organization expressed concern at the low turnout of just 43.5% of the electorate.

According to results from the Registraduría Nacional del Estado Civil, after 99.97% of the votes had been counted, there was no outright winner of the presidential election of 25 May 2014. Zuluaga of the CD polled the most votes, some 3,759,971, or 29.3% of the valid votes cast, while Santos garnered 3,301,815 votes, equivalent to 25.7% of the ballot. Third-placed was Marta Lucía Ramírez of the PC with 15.5% of the votes, followed by Clara López Obregón of the PDA with 15.2%. As no candidate garnered more than 50% of the votes, a second round ballot between Zuluaga and Santos was scheduled to be held on 15 June.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

Costa Rica

The Republic of Costa Rica lies in the Central American isthmus. In 1821 Costa Rica declared its independence from Spain. Under José Figueres Ferrer, founder of the Partido de Liberación Nacional (PLN), Costa Rica became one of the most democratic countries in Latin America. The PLN lost power in 1978, but regained office in 1982. In 1990 the Partido Unidad Social Cristiana (PUSC) nominee was elected. The PUSC retained the presidency until 2006, when the PLN’s Oscar Arias Sánchez was returned to office. Laura Chinchilla Miranda, another PLN candidate, succeeded him in 2010. In 2014 Luis Guillermo Solís Rivera of the Partido Acción Ciudadana was elected to the presidency. San José is the capital. The language spoken is Spanish.

Area and Population

Area:

51,100 sq km

Population

(mid-2014): 4,773,130

Population density (mid-2014):

93.4 per sq km

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

79.7 (males 77.5; females 82.0)

Finance

GDP in current prices (World Bank estimates, 2012):

US $45,104m. ($9,386 per head)

Real GDP growth (preliminary, 2013):

3.5%

Inflation (average change in consumer prices, 2013):

5.3%

Currency:

colón

Government and Politics

Under the Constitution of 1949, executive power is vested in the President and an appointed Cabinet. The President is elected for a four-year term by compulsory adult suffrage, and a successful candidate must receive at least 40% of the votes. The legislative organ is the unicameral Legislative Assembly, with 57 members who are similarly elected for four years. Judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court, the justices of which are elected by the Legislative Assembly.

Head of State:

President Luis Guillermo Solís Rivera

Head of Government:

President Luis Guillermo Solís Rivera

Last election:

Presidential, second round, 6 April 2014

Next election:

Presidential and legislative, due February 2018

Recent political developments

Luis Guillermo Solís Rivera of the PAC secured 30.6% of the valid votes cast at the presidential election conducted on 2 February 2014. Johnny Araya Monge, the nominee of the governing PLN, was his closest rival, with 29.7% of the ballot, while the FA’s José María Villalta Florez-Estrada attracted 17.3% and Otto Guevara Guth of the ML 11.3%. A run-off election between Solís and Araya was scheduled to take place on 6 April; however, in early March Araya announced he was withdrawing from the contest, owing to the closeness of the first round result. As electoral rules prohibited a candidate’s withdrawal, Araya declared he would not campaign for the second round of voting, although his name would still appear on ballot papers. Predictably, Solís won a landslide victory on 6 April, garnering 77.8% of the ballot, according to preliminary results. Araya won 22.2% of the vote. Although the rate of abstention was high, Solís still attracted more than 1.3m. votes, giving him a strong mandate to govern. He took office on 8 May.

Legislative polls were held concurrently with the first round of the presidential election. The PLN’s representation in the Legislative Assembly declined to 18 seats, while the PAC and the FA performed strongly, increasing the number of seats under their control to 14 and nine, respectively. The PUSC won eight seats and the ML retained three, with the remaining five mandates allocated to smaller parties.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

Cuba

The Republic of Cuba comprises two main islands and numerous keys and islets in the Caribbean Sea, south of Florida, USA. In 1898 Spain ceded Cuba to the USA. In 1902 it became an independent republic. Cuba was ruled by Fulgencio Batista Zaldívar from 1933 until 1944, and again, from 1952 until his defeat, in 1959, by guerrilla forces led by Dr Fidel Castro Ruz. In 1961 Cuba became a communist state, against which the USA has maintained an economic and political blockade. Castro was President of the Council of State from 1976 until 2008, when he was succeeded by his brother, Gen. Raúl Castro Ruz (to whom he had provisionally ceded the presidency in 2006 owing to ill health). The capital is Havana. The language spoken is Spanish.

Area and Population

Area:

109,884 sq km

Population (preliminary, 31 December 2013):

11,210,064

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

79.1 (males 77.1; females 81.1)

Finance

GDP in current prices (UN estimates, 2012):

US $71,017m. ($6,301 per head)

Real GDP growth (2012):

3.0%

Inflation (average change in consumer prices, 2012):

2.0%

Currency:

peso

Government and Politics

Under the 1976 Constitution (the first since the 1959 Revolution, amended in 1992 and 2002), the supreme organ of state, and the sole legislative authority, is the Asamblea Nacional del Poder Popular (National Assembly of People’s Power), with deputies (614 following the general election of 2008) elected for five years by direct vote. The National Assembly elects 31 of its members to form the Council of State, the Assembly’s permanent organ. The Council of State is the highest representative of the State, and its President is both Head of State and Head of Government. Executive and administrative authority is vested in the Council of Ministers, appointed by the National Assembly on the proposal of the Head of State. Municipal, regional and provincial assemblies have also been established. The Partido Comunista de Cuba (PCC), the only authorized political party, is ‘the leading force of society and the State’. The PCC’s highest authority is the Party Congress, which elects a Central Committee and a Secretariat to supervise the Party’s work. To direct its policy, the Central Committee elects a Politburo.

Head of State:

Gen. Raúl Castro Ruz

Head of Government:

President of the Council of State Gen. Raúl Castro Ruz

Last election:

Legislative, 3 February 2013

Next election:

Legislative, due by February 2018

Recent political developments

On 18–19 June 2013, in Washington, DC, USA, talks were held on resuming the direct mail service between Cuba and the USA which had been terminated in 1963. (Discussions on the issue had been initiated in September 2009 but suspended following the arrest of Alan Gross. A further round of talks was held in Havana in mid-September.) In July 2013 a North Korean ship with a cargo of sugar was detected by the US Administration departing from a port in Cuba. Not wishing to risk a bilateral incident, US officials reported their sighting to their Panamanian counterparts, who found the vessel to be carrying a consignment of obsolete defensive weapons bound for North Korea for repair and eventual return to Cuba. Following a search of the ship by UN weapons inspectors, Cuba was declared to be in contravention of UN arms sanctions against North Korea; this was confirmed by a UN report published in March 2014, which also suggested that other such violations by Cuba may have occurred in 2012. Despite this incident, on 17 July 2013 the first bilateral migration talks since the beginning of 2011 took place in Washington between Cuban and US officials. The discussions, according to Cuban sources held in ‘a climate of respect’, related to the implementation of the US immigration accords of 1994 and 1995; during the meeting the US delegation reiterated its demand for the release of Gross. In early August it was announced that Cubans wanting to travel to the USA for personal reasons would be granted a non-immigrant multiple entry visa valid for five years.

In mid-2013 allegations emerged that a number of Cuban migrants detained in a detention centre in the Bahamas had been physically and sexually abused, prompting a hunger strike by US-based Cuban advocacy group Democracy Movement. Three detainees in particular gained notoriety when a video was broadcast on a Spanish-language television channel in Florida, USA that depicted their alleged beating by Bahamanian officers following their attempted escape from the centre in May. Bahamanian foreign minister Fred Mitchell claimed that the events in the video were staged; none the less an investigation into the affair was completed at the end of September. On 26 November Cuban consular services in the USA were suspended by the Interests Section of the country’s diplomatic mission after it failed to find a replacement for a bank that was terminating its services to foreign diplomatic missions; on 9 December, however, services were temporarily resumed in early December, but suspended again in February 2014.

In November 2013, at a fundraising event in Miami, Florida, USA, President Obama expressed a willingness to revise US foreign policy towards Cuba; this was confirmed later that month in a speech by US Secretary of State John Kerry, in which he announced that Obama was seeking a pragmatic approach with Cuba without political pre-conditions. The following month, at the memorial service for former South African President Nelson Mandela, President Obama publicly shook the hand of Raúl Castro, a move which many Cubans saw as a further sign of hope for improved relations between the two countries, particularly after Castro subsequently proposed a relationship based on ‘mutual respect’. In April 2014 reports emerged of a secret US government programme to establish a social network in Cuba with the aim of destabilizing the regime.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

Ecuador

The Republic of Ecuador lies on the west coast of South America. In 1822 Ecuador achieved independence from Spain as part of Gran Colombia, from which it seceded in 1830. Until 1948 Ecuador’s political life was characterized by a rapid succession of presidents, dictators and juntas. Thereafter, military interventions in politics and government occurred frequently. In 1978 a democratic Constitution was approved. Rafael Correa Delgado of the Alianza País was elected President in 2006. In October 2008 a new Constitution entered into force following its approval in a referendum. Correa was re-elected to the presidency in 2009 and 2013. Quito is the capital. Spanish is the official language.

Area and Population

Area:

272,045 sq km

Population (2014):

16,027,466

Population density (2014):

58.9 per sq km

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

73.2 (males 70.2; females 76.5)

Finance

GDP in current prices (World Bank estimates, 2012):

US $84,040m. ($5,425 per head)

Real GDP growth (2013):

4.5%

Inflation (average change in consumer prices, 2013):

2.7%

Currency:

US dollar

Government and Politics

The Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador—the country’s 20th—was promulgated on 20 October 2008. Under the terms of the Constitution, executive power is vested in the President, who is directly elected by universal adult suffrage for a four-year term. The President may be re-elected once only. Legislative power is held by the unicameral Asamblea Nacional (National Assembly), which is also directly elected for a four-year term. For administrative purposes Ecuador is divided into provinces, cantons and parishes. Each province has a Governor, who is appointed by the President.

Head of State:

President Rafael Correa Delgado

Head of Government:

President Rafael Correa Delgado

Last election:

Legislative and presidential, 17 February 2013

Next election:

Legislative and presidential, due 2017

Recent political developments

At the presidential election of 17 February 2013 Correa secured a resounding victory with some 57.2% of total votes, thereby obviating the need for a second round ballot. His closest rival, former banker Guillermo Lasso, secured some 22.7% of the vote, and former President Lucio Gutiérrez received just 6.7%. At the concurrent legislative elections the Alianza País secured a critical two-thirds’ majority in the National Assembly with some 97 seats, becoming the first single party since 1979 to enjoy a legislative majority. Correa announced his intention to use the increased mandate to accelerate constitutional reform in line with his so-called citizens’ revolution.

One of the new Government’s first acts, following President Correa’s inauguration in late May 2013, was the approval of a controversial bill governing the country’s media. The legislation, which Correa had first presented to the Assembly some three years earlier, provided for increased government control and supervision of the media and the reallocation of radio and television frequencies to limit the number of private broadcasters while increasing those reserved for state operators. The opposition claimed that the reforms would erode the influence of Correa’s political opponents and described them as an attack on freedom of speech. The Government was similarly criticized for introducing regulations requiring all non-government organizations to undergo a screening process, with powers to disband any that did not meet its criteria. Further accusations that Correa’s Government was trying to silence its critics followed the sentencing in August to 12 years’ imprisonment of Pepe Luis Acacho, a member of the Shuar indigenous community and leader of the Pachakútik movement, for sabotage and terrorism in his role in the protests against the Government’s water policy in the Amazon region in 2009, during which a protester had been shot dead. The unexpectedly harsh sentence prompted expressions of alarm from international human rights groups. Moreover, the environmental charity Fundación Pachamama, which had been involved in the campaign to prevent oil production in the Yasuní national park (see above), was forcibly closed down during a police raid on its premises in December. The action appeared to support accusations that Correa’s administration was becoming increasingly authoritarian and less tolerant of dissent.

Efforts to pursue justice for the victims of political violence and human rights abuses continued during 2013. In October three senior military officers were arrested on charges of crimes against humanity, including torture, kidnapping and sexual violence allegedly committed against members of Alfaro Vive ¡Carajo! in 1985, under the presidency of Febres Cordero. A further six retired officers were put under house arrest. In January 2014 former police commander Edgardo Vaca was detained in the USA. Plans were under way for his extradition to Ecuador to face charges of human rights abuses.

Alianza País suffered a serious reversal in the municipal elections of February 2014, losing the mayoralties in nine of the country’s 10 most populous cities, most significantly including Quito. Moreover, four of the six Amazonian provinces rejected Correa’s party in apparent protests at the President’s decision to proceed with oil exploration in the region.

In March 2014 Correa announced that the National Assembly would begin the process of amending the Constitution with the intention of legitimizing his ambition to seek re-election in 2017.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

El Salvador

The Republic of El Salvador lies on the Pacific coast of Central America. From 1980 a civil war was fought between government forces and those mobilized by the Frente Democrático Revolucionario and the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional (FMLN). The conflict was formally concluded in 1992, when the FMLN was legitimized. At presidential elections in 1994, 1999 and 2004 the candidate of the Alianza Republicana Nacionalista (ARENA) was successful. However, the 2009 ballot was won by the FMLN candidate, Mauricio Funes. Salvador Sánchez Cerén, also of the FMLN, succeeded him in 2014. San Salvador is the capital. The language is Spanish.

Area and Population

Area:

21,041 sq km

Population (mid-2014):

6,328,196

Population density (mid-2014):

300.8 per sq km

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

72.1 (males 67.5; females 76.9)

Finance

GDP in current prices (World Bank estimates, 2012):

US $23,864m. ($3,790 per head)

Real GDP growth (2013):

1.6%

Inflation (average change in consumer prices, 2013):

0.7%

Currency:

colón

Government and Politics

The Constitution came into effect in 1983. Executive power is held by the President, assisted by the Vice-President and the Cabinet. The President is elected for a five-year term, beginning and ending on 1 June, by universal adult suffrage. Legislative power is vested in the Asamblea Legislativa (Legislative Assembly), with 84 members elected by universal adult suffrage for a three-year term beginning on 1 May. Judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Court and other competent tribunals. Supreme Court judges are elected by the Assembly.

Head of State:

President Salvador Sánchez Cerén

Head of Government:

President Salvador Sánchez Cerén

Last election:

Presidential, second round, 9 March 2014

Next election:

Legislative, March 2015

Recent political developments

At the first round of the presidential election, which took place on 2 February 2014, Sánchez garnered 48.9% of the votes cast, compared with 39.0% for Quijano and 11.4% for Saca. The two leading candidates progressed to a second round run-off election on 9 March, at which Sánchez, with 50.1% of the ballot, narrowly defeated Quijano, who attracted 49.9%. Although the results were sanctioned by the Supreme Electoral Tribunal and international monitors, Quijano alleged that fraudulent activity had taken place and launched an unsuccessful legal challenge, before finally conceded defeat in late March. Sánchez was due to be inaugurated as President on 1 June. His initial priorities included reinvigorating the ailing economy, implementing fiscal reforms, and combating crime, poverty and inequality. Among the early appointments to the new Cabinet, Sánchez retained Carlos Cáceres Chávez as Minister of Finance and Gerson Martínez as Minister of Public Works, Transport, Housing and Urban Development. Tharsis Salomón López was also designated as the incoming Minister of the Economy.

Quijano’s image had been tarnished during the pre-election period after accusations of corruption had been directed against one of his campaign advisers, former President Flores. An inquiry was subsequently initiated into the alleged embezzlement of Taiwanese funds by Flores during his presidency, precipitating his resignation from Quijano’s campaign team and his suspension from ARENA. In January 2014, apparently in response to this scandal, the Government recalled its ambassador to Taiwan, while later that month Flores attempted unsuccessfully to flee El Salvador.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

Guatemala

The Republic of Guatemala lies in the Central American isthmus. From 1960 civil war was waged in Guatemala between successive (mainly) military regimes and guerrilla insurgencies. In 1986 power was transferred from the military to a civilian Government. Elections held in 1995 were notable for the participation, for the first time in more than 40 years, of the left wing. In 1996 the Government and the main guerrilla grouping, the Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca, signed a peace treaty, concluding the civil war. Gen. (retd) Otto Fernando Pérez Molina of the Partido Patriota was elected to the presidency in 2011. The capital is Guatemala City. The official language is Spanish.

Area and Population

Area:

108,889 sq km

Population (mid-2014):

15,806,675

Population density (mid-2014):

145.2 per sq km

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

71.7 (males 68.2; females 75.3)

Finance

GDP in current prices (World Bank estimates, 2012):

US $50,234m. ($3,331 per head)

Real GDP growth (preliminary, 2013):

3.7%

Inflation (average change in consumer prices, 2013):

4.3%

Currency:

quetzal

Government and Politics

Under the 1986 Constitution (revised in 1994), legislative power is vested in the unicameral Congreso de la República (Congress), with 158 members elected for four years by universal adult suffrage. Of the total seats, 127 are filled by departmental representation and 31 according to national listing. Executive power is held by the President (also directly elected for four years), assisted by a Vice-President and an appointed Cabinet. Judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Court of Justice and other tribunals. For the purposes of local administration the country comprises 22 departments, which are divided into 330 municipalities.

Head of State:

President Gen. (retd) Otto Fernando Pérez Molina

Head of Government:

President Gen. (retd) Otto Fernando Pérez Molina

Last election:

Presidential, second round, 6 November 2011

Next election:

Presidential and legislative, due by September 2015

Recent political developments

Despite a constitutional provision barring those related to the incumbent President by blood or ‘affinity’ from contesting the presidency, in March 2011 Colom’s wife, Sandra Torres de Colom, announced that she intended to compete in the upcoming election as the candidate of the UNE and GANA. Ostensibly to facilitate this objective, Torres and Colom divorced in the following month. However, the Supreme Electoral Tribunal regarded this move as a fraudulent attempt to bypass the Constitution and in June rejected Torres’ candidacy. This ruling was endorsed by the Supreme Electoral Court and the Supreme Court in July and the Constitutional Court in August. With Torres’ legal options exhausted and the registration deadline expired, the UNE-GANA coalition was unable to field a presidential candidate in the 11 September election.

The presidential and legislative polls took place peacefully, although the pre-election period had been marred by political violence. In the general election, the PP gained control of 56 seats in the 158-seat Congress, while the UNE-GANA (which terminated their alliance later that month) secured 48, LIDER and the Unión del Cambio Nacional 14 each, and Compromiso, Renovación y Orden 12; the remaining 14 seats were distributed among six smaller parties and coalitions. No candidate secured an outright victory in the presidential contest, so a second round of voting between the two leading contenders—the PP’s Gen. (retd) Otto Fernando Pérez Molina and Manuel Antonio Baldizón Méndez of LIDER—was held 6 November. Pérez Molina triumphed in the run-off election, receiving 53.7% of the valid votes cast. The rate of participation by the electorate was recorded at 69.3% in the legislative poll and at 69.4% and 60.8% in the first and second rounds, respectively, of the presidential election.

Pérez Molina was sworn in as President on 14 January 2012, becoming the first head of state with a military background since the end of the civil conflict. His new Government was dominated by the PP, although the foreign affairs and agriculture portfolios were allocated to members of the Visión con Valores-Encuentro por Guatemala. A new Ministry of Social Development was also established, which was to focus on poverty reduction initiatives.

To address the country’s crime problems, in January 2012 Pérez Molina announced plans for the further involvement of the military in police operations, in spite of the fact that this was in breach of the 1996 peace treaty. He also proposed recruiting an additional 10,000 police officers. Anti-crime measures introduced in mid-2012 included the establishment of a training facility for senior police officials to boost professionalism in the force, the creation of two additional military bases, and the temporary, but controversial, deployment of a contingent of US troops, who were to aid the Guatemalan authorities in combating drugs-smuggling. The PNC reported that the number of murders had declined to 5,174 in 2012, down from 5,681 in 2011 and 6,498 in 2009. However, provisional data indicated that the number of murders rose slightly in 2013.

In January 2012 Ríos Montt, whose immunity from prosecution had expired with the inauguration of the new Congress, was charged with genocide and other serious crimes dating from his 1982–83 presidency. This development, along with the concurrent ratification of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, alleviated some of the concerns expressed by Pérez Molina’s critics, who feared that the new President might obstruct the ongoing investigations into military abuses committed during the civil war. The trial of Ríos Montt finally began in March 2013, after delays caused by a series of appeals submitted by his defence team. In April, however, the trial was suspended after a further appeal by the former dictator’s defence team. Nevertheless, in early May Ríos Montt was found guilty of crimes against humanity and sentenced to 80 years’ imprisonment, although 10 days later the Constitutional Court overturned this verdict on the basis that the trial should not have resumed until all the defence appeals had been heard. The decision was condemned internationally and by human rights organizations. Nevertheless, the Court ruled that the proceedings of the trial remained valid. The trial of the former dictator was not scheduled to recommence until January 2015.

The death of an environmental activist in Santa Cruz Barillas, Huehuetenango, in May 2012 prompted rioting and the declaration of a 30-day state of siege in the municipality, although this was rescinded later that month following anti-Government demonstrations. There was also unrest in the capital in July, when a protest against proposed education reforms (which would increase the cost of teacher-training courses) turned violent; the Ministers of Education and the Interior were injured during the disturbances. In October the military resorted to the use of deadly force against six indigenous demonstrators during a march in Totonicapán organized by social activists and opponents of the Government’s education plans. In spite of this atrocity, which generated widespread outrage as well as further questions regarding the propriety of the administration’s hard-line security strategy, Pérez Molina continued to defend the use of soldiers as auxiliary police officers. Following violent clashes between anti-mining demonstrators and the police in San Rafael Las Flores, Santa Rosa, another 30-day state of siege was announced in May 2013, affecting several municipalities within Santa Rosa and Jalapa. Further social unrest was reported during 2013–14, with numerous demonstrations staged in protest against the Government’s mining, energy and education policies; in August 2013 some 20,000 people participated in nationwide protests against high energy costs and to demand that the electricity network be renationalized.

Meanwhile, in August 2012 Pérez Molina proposed a series of constitutional changes, providing for judicial reform, a reduction in the number of congressional seats and the increased use of the military in civilian policing. However, political and popular reaction to these proposals was subdued, and in November Pérez Molina suspended the constitutional review process in the Congress, citing funding concerns. The President was more successful in his efforts to reduce high-level corruption, with an anti-graft bill receiving legislative approval in October. Pérez Molina reorganized the Cabinet in January 2013, appointing Luis Fernando Carrera Castro as Minister of Foreign Affairs and Elmer Alberto López Rodríguez as Minister of Agriculture, Livestock and Food. Ostensibly in response to an upturn in the murder rate, in July the President also replaced the Director-General of the PNC and the Minister of National Defence; Brig.-Gen. Manuel Augusto López Ambrosio was given responsibility for defence. In a further cabinet reorganization in January 2014, María Concepción Castro Mazariegos was named as the new Minister of Public Finance and Michelle Martínez received the environment and natural resources portfolio. More controversially, in the following month the Constitutional Court upheld an appeal, submitted by a businessman with links to several right-wing parties, that would result in Attorney-General Paz y Paz’s four-year mandate being reduced by seven months. A new Attorney-General was installed in May. The judgment elicited expressions of concern from CICIG and civil liberties groups, which feared that Paz y Paz’s successor would be less willing to address the issue of impunity.

Presidential and legislative polls were due to be held by September 2015. The UNE selected Torres as its presidential candidate in mid-2013, while the ruling PP nominated Alejandro Sinibaldi, the minister responsible for communications, in early 2014. It was anticipated that Baldizón would again contest the presidential election as LIDER’s representative.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

Haiti

The Republic of Haiti mainly comprises the western part of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola. François Duvalier established a dictatorship in 1957 and was succeeded by his son, who was ousted in 1986. In 1990 Fr Jean-Bertrand Aristide was elected President. Aristide was overthrown in 1991, but reinstated in 1994. Aristide was succeeded in 1995 by René Préval. Aristide was returned to the presidency in 2000, but resigned in early 2004. Préval was re-elected President in 2006. Michel Martelly succeeded him in 2011. In January 2010 the country suffered a devastating earthquake that destroyed most of the capital, Port-au-Prince, and killed an estimated 220,000 people. Legislative elections, originally scheduled for 2012, were due to be held in late 2014. French and Creole are the official languages.

Area and Population

Area:

27,065 sq km

Population (UN estimate, mid-2014):

10,461,408

Population density (mid-2014):

386.5 per sq km

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

62.7 (males 60.9; females 64.6)

Finance

GDP in current prices (World Bank estimates, 2012):

US $7,843m. ($771 per head)

Real GDP growth (official estimate, year ending 30 September 2013):

4.3%

Inflation (average change in consumer prices, 2013):

5.8%

Currency:

gourde

Government and Politics

The March 1987 Constitution was amended in June 2012. It provided for a bicameral legislature, elected by universal adult suffrage. Executive power is held by the President, who is elected by universal adult suffrage for a five-year term and cannot not stand for immediate re-election. The amended Constitution of 2012 provided for the creation of a constitutional court and a permanent electoral council to replace the discredited Provisional Electoral Council.

There are 10 departments, subdivided into arrondissements and communes.

Head of State:

President Michel Joseph Martelly

Head of Government:

Laurent Lamothe

Last election:

Legislative and presidential, second round, 20 March 2011

Next election:

Legislative, 26 October 2014

Recent political developments

On 11 April 2013 a presidential decree was finally published on the formation of the Transitional College of the Permanent Electoral Council. The College was to comprise nine members, three each appointed by the executive, the legislature and the judiciary. In May the Senate approved the country’s first ever anti-corruption law; by early 2014, however, the Chamber of Deputies had failed to approve the new legislation. In August it was reported that the President of the lower house was to introduce drastic measures to ensure that its members participated in the sessions; no law had been passed since early June owing to the lack of quorum. The preliminary draft of the electoral law was submitted to the President on 3 July; it was passed by the Senate on 2 October, ratified by the Chamber of Deputies, in an extraordinary session convened by Martelly, on 27 November and promulgated on 14 December. It was expected that the long overdue partial senatorial ballot would take place in 2014, but remained to be seen whether the election of 10 additional senators, as well as local elections and those of the members of the lower house, would be held simultaneously. (Had the electoral law not been promulgated by 13 January 2014 10 out of the 20 currently sitting senators would have been forced to leave office, leaving the upper house short of a quorum.) Apart from the passage of the electoral law, the work of the Chamber of Deputies in the second half of 2013 was obstructed by persistent absenteeism. Representatives of the executive, legislature and political parties began negotiations towards an agreement on the holding of elections began in late January 2014 in Pétionville, mediated by the Bishop of Les Cayes, Cardinal Chibly Langlois. On 14 March an accord was reached, which provided for elections to be held to two-thirds of the Senate and the entire Chamber of Deputies by the end of the year, but ideally by 26 October. This was approved by the legislature on 1 April.

The death of Judge Jean Serge Joseph on 13 July 2013 caused a huge amount of political controversy. At the time of his death the judge had been investigating charges of corruption against Martelly’s wife and son. It was alleged that on 11 July in a secret meeting Joseph had been ordered to call off the investigation by, among others, the President, the Prime Minister and the Minister of Justice and Public Security, Jean Renel Sanon, all of whom denied that such a meeting took place. Joseph died of a brain haemorrhage, the causes of which were reported to be either stress or poison. A report published on 8 August, following a Senate inquiry into the judge’s death, recommended that Lamothe and Sanon be removed from office and that Martelly be impeached for high treason for having lied to the nation. An inquiry conducted by the lower house made similar recommendations.

In January 2014 nine people were charged with the murder of Jean Dominique, a prominent radio broadcaster and political analyst, and a security guard in April 2000. The suspects included several allies of Aristide who was leader of the opposition when the murder took place. In May 2013 thousands of the former President’s supporters defied a ban in order to greet him as he appeared in court to give evidence at the trial. Aristide was not indicted as having been part of the conspiracy despite evidence that the organizer of Dominique’s murder, former FL senator Mirlande Libérus, had been acting on his orders.

As part of the so-called ‘El Rancho’ agreement (named after the hotel in which negotiations took place) on elections reached in March 2014, in early April President Martelly effected a cabinet reshuffle, in order that a wider range of political parties were represented in government. Notably, Marie-Carmelle Jean-Marie was reappointed to the economy and finance ministry.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

Honduras

The Republic of Honduras lies in the Central American isthmus. Military rule was officially ended in 1980, when elections to a Constituent Assembly were held. In 1993–97 the influence of the military was reduced and past human rights violations were investigated. José Manuel Zelaya Rosales became President in 2006. In 2009, following confrontation between Zelaya and the legislative and judicial authorities over proposed constitutional reform, he was ousted by the military and replaced in an interim capacity by Roberto Micheletti Baín. He was succeeded by Porfirio Lobo Sosa following elections in November. Juan Orlando Hernández was elected to the presidency in 2013. Tegucigalpa is the capital. The national language is Spanish.

Area and Population

Area:

112,492 sq km

Population (mid-2014):

8,725,111

Population density (mid-2014):

77.6 per sq km

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

73.5 (males 71.2; females 76.0)

Finance

GDP in current prices (World Bank estimates, 2012):

US $18,434m. ($2,323 per head)

Real GDP growth (preliminary, 2013):

2.6%

Inflation (average change in consumer prices, 2013):

5.2%

Currency:

lempira

Government and Politics

A new Constitution was promulgated in January 1982, and has been amended from time to time. Under the provisions of the Constitution, the President is elected by a simple majority of the voters. The President holds executive power and has a single four-year mandate. Legislative power is vested in the Congreso Nacional (National Congress), with 128 members elected by universal adult suffrage for a term of four years. Judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Court, the Courts of Appeal and various lesser tribunals. The country is divided into 18 local departments, which are subdivided into 298 autonomous municipalities.

Head of State:

President Juan Orlando Hernández Alvarado

Head of Government:

President Juan Orlando Hernández Alvarado

Last election:

Presidential and legislative, 24 November 2013

Next election:

Presidential and legislative, due November 2017

Recent political developments

Hernández attracted 36.9% of the votes cast in the presidential election conducted on 24 November 2013, defeating Castro de Zelaya (28.8%), Villeda (20.3%) and Salvador Nasralla of the recently formed Partido Anticorrupción (PAC—13.4%). In the concurrent legislative polls, Hernández’s PN garnered 48 of the 128 seats in the National Congress; LIBRE won 37 seats, the PL 27, the PAC 13 and smaller parties the remaining three. Despite some electoral irregularities and disquiet about campaign financing, the results were endorsed by international observers. LIBRE, however, denounced the presidential poll as illegitimate and mounted an unsuccessful legal challenge.

Hernández assumed the presidency on 27 January 2014, and several members of the Lobo administration—including Agüero, Cerrato and Corrales—were reappointed to the new Cabinet. In addition, complementary portfolios were to be grouped together into seven consolidated ‘superministries’ in an attempt to improve government efficiency. Jorge Ramón Hernández Alcerro was named as Co-ordinator-General of the Government and was tasked with overseeing the sectoral ministries. Although the PN had lost its majority in the Congress, commentators deemed it likely that the PL would provide the ruling party with the requisite votes to implement its manifesto.

The Minister of Agriculture and Livestock, Jorge Lobo (son of the former President), resigned in March 2014, reportedly following a disagreement with President Hernández. He was replaced by Jacobo Paz Bodden.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

Mexico

The United Mexican States is bordered to the north by the USA, and to the south by Guatemala and Belize. From 1929 until 2000 the country was dominated by the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI), for much of that time in an effective one-party system, although a democratic form of election was maintained. In 2000 Vicente Fox of the Partido Acción Nacional (PAN) was elected President, ending the PRI’s 71-year hegemony in Mexican government. Felipe Calderón, also of the PAN, succeeded him in 2006; however, the PRI regained power in the 2012 presidential election. Mexico City is the capital. Spanish is the principal language.

Area and Population

Area:

1,964,375 sq km

Population (mid-2014):

119,713,203

Population density (mid-2014):

60.9 per sq km

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

77.1 (males 74.8; females 79.6)

Finance

GDP in current prices (World Bank estimates, 2012):

US $1,178,126m. ($9,749 per head)

Real GDP growth (2013):

1.1%

Inflation (average change in consumer prices, 2013):

3.8%

Currency:

peso

Government and Politics

The present Mexican Constitution was proclaimed on 5 February 1917. Its provisions regarding religion, education, and the ownership and exploitation of mineral wealth reflect the long revolutionary struggle against the concentration of power in the hands of the Roman Catholic Church and the large landowners, and the struggle that culminated, in the 1930s, in the expropriation of the properties of foreign petroleum companies. It has been amended from time to time.

Mexico is a federal republic comprising 31 states and a Federal District (comprising the capital). Legislative power is vested in the bicameral Congreso de la Unión (Congress), elected by universal adult suffrage. The Senado (Senate) has 128 members (four from each state and the Distrito Federal), serving a six-year term. The Cámara Federal de Diputados (Federal Chamber of Deputies), directly elected for three years, has 500 seats, of which 300 are filled from single-member constituencies. The remaining 200 seats, allocated so as to achieve proportional representation, are filled from parties’ lists of candidates. Executive power is held by the President, directly elected for six years at the same time as the Senate. Each state has its own constitution and is administered by a Governor (elected for six years) and an elected Chamber of Deputies. The Federal District is administered by a Head of Government.

Head of State:

President Enrique Peña Nieto

Head of Government:

President Enrique Peña Nieto

Last election:

Presidential and legislative, 1 July 2012

Next election:

Legislative (mid-term), July 2015

Recent political developments

At his inauguration on 1 December 2012 President Peña Nieto announced that the priorities of his Government would include securing peace within the country, reducing poverty and inequality, and reforming the education system. As part of his planned crime prevention programme, a new national police force of some 10,000 officers in 15 units was launched in mid-December, with the particular aim of reducing rates of kidnapping and extortion. In a gesture of co-operation, the three main parties signed a ‘Pact for Mexico’ on the new Government’s reform programme, which included 95 commitments focusing on social inclusion, security, economic growth, accountability and democratic governance.

A series of reforms aimed at modernizing the education system and addressing corrupt practices in the sector was approved by the legislature in late February 2013. The measures, which prompted demonstrations throughout the year, included the establishment of a new independent body to oversee the profession and the introduction of regular assessments for teachers and schools. Vacant posts would be allocated by open competition, rather than by the powerful teachers’ union, the SNTE. The changes proved controversial among some members of the profession, owing to fears that they signalled the onset of privatization, although the Government strongly denied this. The day after approval of the reforms Elba Esther Gordillo Morales, the controversial leader of the SNTE, was arrested on suspicion of embezzling some US $200m. in union funds. Gordillo, who had led the union for some 20 years and had wielded considerable political influence in the role, was alleged to have spent millions of dollars on luxury properties in the USA, a private aeroplane, and cosmetic surgery. These charges were withdrawn in November, but new charges, this time of tax evasion, were instead levelled against Gordillo.

In March 2013, as part of the Pact for Mexico, Peña Nieto announced proposed reforms to the country’s telecommunications and broadcasting sectors. As well as liberalization of the sector to allow for foreign participation (of up to 49% in broadcasting and 100% in telecommunications) and greater competition, the plans presented to the Chamber of Deputies included the establishment of a new independent regulatory body and the creation of two new national television channels. The proposals received congressional approval in April and became law in June. Reforms to the financial sector that envisaged a greater degree of transparency and accountability in the banking system and aimed to encourage economic growth by penalizing institutions that did not assign sufficient resources to lending, were approved in September. Moreover, a series of electoral reforms that included proposals to allow senators to seek re-election for two consecutive terms and deputies for four terms, as well as stricter regulations governing expenditure in electoral campaigns, fewer rules regarding the formation of coalition governments and the replacement of the electoral authority, the IFE, with an Instituto Nacional Electoral (INE), were approved in December.

Most controversial of all the reforms included in the Pact, however, were those concerning the energy sector. The Government’s proposals sought to amend the Constitution, specifically to allow state petroleum body PEMEX to enter into profit-sharing contracts with private companies, claiming that investment from foreign interests would allow the organization to expand its capacity for exploration and production. The proposed changes were strongly opposed by the opposition, which refused to accept the Government’s claim that they did not constitute a privatization of the country’s petroleum industry, and in December 2013 the PRD announced its withdrawal from the Pact in protest. None the less, the reforms, ending the company’s 75-year monopoly of the oil industry, secured congressional approval on 20 December and were promulgated at the end of the month. Peña Nieto announced his commitment to proceed with the reform programme, stating that extensive agrarian reforms were planned for 2014. However, in April the secondary, or enabling, legislation, necessary for telecommunications, energy and electoral reforms to be implemented, failed to gain legislative approval. Extraordinary sessions of the Congress were scheduled to be held in May and June to allow further discussion of the amendments.

In September 2013 Hurricane Manuel struck the south-west of the country, and in the floods, landslides and storms that followed more than 200 people were killed. The extreme weather was estimated to have affected some 1.2m. people across Mexico and two-thirds of the entire national territory.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

Nicaragua

The Republic of Nicaragua lies on the Central American isthmus. From 1935 until 1979 Nicaraguan politics were dominated by the Somoza family. In 1979 the left-wing Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional (FSLN) took power. By 1981 the Sandinistas were opposed by counter-revolutionary forces—‘Contras’. In 1990 Violeta Chamorro, the candidate of the Unión Nacional Opositora, was elected as President; in the same year the demobilization of the Contra rebels signified the end of civil war. In 2006 the FSLN’s candidate, former revolutionary leader Daniel Ortega, was elected President. He was re-elected in November 2011. Managua is the capital. The national language is Spanish.

Area and Population

Area:

130,373 sq km

Population (mid-2013):

6,134,270

Population density (mid-2013):

47.1 per sq km

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

74.5 (males 71.5; females 77.6)

Finance

GDP in current prices (World Bank estimates, 2012):

US $10,507m. ($1,754 per head)

Real GDP growth (2013):

4.6%

Inflation (average change in consumer prices, 2013):

7.1%

Currency:

córdoba

Government and Politics

A new Constitution was promulgated in January 1987. Amendments to the Constitution were approved by the National Assembly in 1995, 2000, 2010 and 2014. Executive power is vested in the President, who is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The President is assisted by a Vice-President and an appointed Cabinet. Legislative power is held by the National Assembly, elected by universal adult suffrage, under a system of proportional representation, for a five-year term.

Head of State:

President José Daniel Ortega Saavedra

Head of Government:

President José Daniel Ortega Saavedra

Last election:

Legislative and presidential, 6 November 2011

Next election:

Legislative and presidential, due November 2016

Recent political developments

The presence of armed groups, operating most notably in the North Atlantic Autonomous Region and Jinotega areas near the border with Honduras, became a cause for concern in 2013. The Government, which maintained that the groups were criminal gangs with no political motives, had sought to disrupt their activities by implementation of a rural security plan which had led to more than 1,000 arrests. However, in late 2013 ongoing reports of violence, involving the deaths of several civilians, led leaders of the Catholic church in the area to urge the Government to engage in dialogue with the groups.

In November 2013 protesters from opposition parties, human rights groups and the Catholic church demonstrated in Managua against Ortega’s proposed changes to the Constitution. The planned amendments, presented to the National Assembly on 1 November, included the further relaxation of the rules governing presidential re-election, which would allow Ortega to run for a fourth term (and third consecutive term), measures to concentrate power in the executive and to extend the role of the military. Also included in the legislation was a proposal to change the percentage of votes necessary to win the presidency from at least 35% of the valid votes and a five point margin to a more vague ‘relative majority’, and a move to prohibit deputies from switching parties. Despite vociferous opposition to the proposals from within the country, as well as from abroad (notably from the US authorities, which opined that the changes could be detrimental to Nicaragua’s democracy), the reforms received legislative approval in late January 2014. Two days later the FSLN-controlled Assembly also passed a law allowing for the re-appointment of the head of the armed forces (appointed by the President for a five-year term) and for military officers concurrently to serve in the executive. The reforms took effect in mid-February.

Local elections were held on 2 March 2014 in the North and South Atlantic Autonomous Regions: the FSLN further confirmed its control of the regional councils in the two municipalities, attracting 52% of the vote in the North Atlantic, compared to 21% won by indigenous party Yatama, and 19% by the PLC. In the South Atlantic, the FSLN took 48% of the vote while the PLC won only 19% and Yatama 7%. Yatama alleged electoral fraud, and in mid-March ended its alliance with the FSLN in the National Assembly in protest.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

Panama

The Republic of Panama is situated at the northern end of the isthmus separating North and South America. In 1821 Panama became independent from Spain as part of Gran Colombia, declaring its separate independence in 1903. During 1968–89 Panama was ruled by military dictatorships. In 1983 Brig. (later Gen.) Manuel Antonio Noriega Morena became Commander-in-Chief of the National Defence Forces. In 1989 a US military offensive overthrew Noriega, who was convicted in the USA of drugs-trafficking offences in 1992. Ricardo Martinelli of the Cambio Democrático was elected to the presidency in 2009. Juan Carlos Varela of the Partido Panameñista succeeded him in 2014. Panamá is the capital. Spanish is the official language.

Area and Population

Area:

75,517 sq km

Population (mid-2014):

3,913,275

Population density (mid-2014):

51.8 per sq km

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

77.4 (males 74.6; females 80.3)

Finance

GDP in current prices (World Bank estimates, 2012):

US $36,253m. ($9,534 per head)

Real GDP growth (preliminary, 2013):

8.4%

Inflation (average change in consumer prices, 2013):

4.0%

Currency:

balboa

Government and Politics

Under the terms of the 1972 Constitution, legislative power is vested in the unicameral Asamblea Nacional (National Assembly), with a total of 71 members elected for five years by universal adult suffrage. Executive power is held by the President, also directly elected for a term of five years, assisted by two elected Vice-Presidents and an appointed Cabinet. Panama is divided into 10 provinces and three autonomous Amerindian reservations. Each province has a governor, appointed by the President.

Head of State:

President Juan Carlos Varela Rodríguez

Head of Government:

President Juan Carlos Varela Rodríguez

Last election:

Legislative and presidential, 4 May 2014

Next election:

Legislative and presidential, due May 2019

Recent political developments

Juan Carlos Navarro, a former Mayor of Panama City and the PRD Secretary-General, was chosen to be that party’s 2014 presidential candidate in March 2013. Later the same month Vice-President Varela was confirmed as the PP’s nominee. In May the CD announced that it had selected former housing minister José Domingo Arias as its presidential candidate.

In July 2013 the Supreme Court ordered the dismissal of Patria Portugal, the human rights ombudswoman, who had been accused of corruption. Portugal was officially removed from office by the National Assembly the following month. The election of her replacement, Lilia Herrera Mow, by parliament in September was controversial as Herrera had links with the CD. At the end of July the CD administration was again accused of planning to sell off state shares in public-private companies following the passage of legislation to modify Panama’s sovereign wealth fund that was in the process of being approved by the National Assembly; despite these claims by the opposition, the bill received legislative approval.

In August 2013 it was announced that a lawyer representing the families of those ‘disappeared’ during the country’s military dictatorships was to take their case against the Panamanian state to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.

Former presidential candidate Balbina Herrera of the PRD received a three-year prison sentence in October 2013 for allegedly leaking conversations between President Martinelli and Valter Lavitola, raising concerns among civil society groups about the independence of the judiciary. Further concerns were voiced in November when the Supreme Court overturned a ruling by the Electoral Tribunal against a televised campaign that claimed that Juan Carlos Navarro had been ineffectual as Mayor of Panama City. A major power struggle between the two judicial bodies was averted when the civil society group, Panamá Avanza, withdrew the appeal it had filed with the Supreme Court.

In November 2013 the Frente Amplio por la Democracia (FAD, the political wing of FRENADESO) declared union leader Genaro López as their presidential candidate. The announcement in early 2014 that Martinelli’s wife, Marta Linares, had been chosen as running mate of José Domingo Arias was seen as evidence that the President was intending to retain some influence should his party be successful in the forthcoming elections. Two appeals were subsequently made against her candidacy on grounds of being unconstitutional. In early February Minister of Foreign Affairs Fernando Núnez Fábrega resigned; he was replaced by Francisco Alvarez de Soto of the CD. Following a complaint filed by the Electoral Tribunal in early March President Martinelli and José Domingo Arias were forced to defend their party’s alleged illegal access and use of information from the court’s database. The incumbent regime came under further criticism in March when the murder of a well-known journalist in Chiriquí province resulted in calls from the opposition for the adoption of a hardline security policy.

The expansion of the Panama Canal suffered a major setback in early January 2014 when the international consortium Grupo Unidos por el Canal (GUPC) threatened to suspend work on the project if the ACP failed to meet a US $1,600m. cost overrun. A subsequent offer to mediate in the dispute by the European Union (EU) was rejected by the ACP. The GUPC’s original deadline of 21 January, after which work would be suspended, was extended by 10 days. By early February almost all construction activity had ceased; the following week, however, the ACP announced that a preliminary deal had been reached with the GUPC and work resumed on 20 February. The two sides reached a definitive agreement in mid-March.

The PP’s candidate, Juan Carlos Varela, won an unexpected victory in the presidential election of 4 May 2014, attracting 39.1% of the valid votes cast. His nearest challenger was Arias of the ruling CD, who won 31.4% of the valid vote, followed by Navarro of the PRD, who garnered 28.1% of the ballot. However, Varela’s PP, which contested the elections as part of the El Pueblo Primero alliance with the Partido Popular, won only 12 seats in the concurrent elections to the 71-seat National Assembly. The Partido Popular won a further seat. The CD attracted the most legislative seats (30), while its ally MOLIRENA won only two seats. The PRD increased its parliamentary representation to 25 seats. Varela was scheduled to take office on 1 July.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

Paraguay

The Republic of Paraguay is situated in central South America. From 1947–2008 Paraguay was governed by the Asociación Nacional Republicana—Partido Colorado. In 1954 Gen. Alfredo Stroessner Mattiauda assumed power and subsequently contrived to become Latin America’s longest-serving dictator. Stroessner was overthrown in 1989. Following a period of instability, in 2003 Oscar Nicanor Duarte Frutos was elected President. In 2008 Fernando Lugo Méndez of the Alianza Patriótica para el Cambio was elected to succeed him. Lugo was impeached in June 2012. In April 2013 Horacio Cartes of the Partido Colorado was elected President. Asunción is the capital. Spanish and Guaraní are the official languages.

Area and Population

Area:

406,752 sq km

Population (mid-2014):

6,893,727

Population density (mid-2014):

16.9 per sq km

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

72.2 (males 70.0; females 74.5)

Finance

GDP in current prices (World Bank estimates, 2012):

US 25,502m. ($3,813 per head)

Real GDP growth (preliminary, 2013):

13.6%

Inflation (Asunción, average change in consumer prices, 2013):

2.7%

Currency:

guaraní

Government and Politics

Under the 1992 Constitution, legislative power is held by the bicameral Congreso Nacional (National Congress), whose members serve for five years. The Senado (Senate) has 45 members, and the Cámara de Diputados (Chamber of Deputies) 80 members. Elections to the legislature are by universal adult suffrage. Executive power is held by the President, directly elected for a single term of five years at the same time as the legislature. The President of the Republic governs with the assistance of a Vice-President and an appointed Council of Ministers. Judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Court of Justice and by the tribunals. In addition to the capital district, Asunción, Paraguay is divided into 17 departments, each administered by an elected governor.

Head of State:

President Horacio Manuel Cartes Jara

Head of Government:

President Horacio Manuel Cartes Jara

Last election:

Presidential and legislative, 21 April 2013

Next election:

Presidential and legislative, due April 2018

Recent political developments

In the election held on 21 April 2013 the nominee of the Partido Colorado, Horacio Cartes, won the presidency convincingly, with 45.8% of the votes cast. Efraín Alegre of the PLRA attracted 36.9% of the ballot, while Mario Ferreiro of the Avanza País coalition (composed of FG dissidents) garnered 5.9% and the FG’s Aníbal Carrillo Iramain 3.3%. The Partido Colorado also won a majority of seats in concurrent elections to the Chamber of Deputies, as well as 19 seats in the 45-seat Senate. International observers praised the conduct of the polls. Cartes took office on 15 August. His new Council of Ministers included Francisco José de Vargas as Minister of the Interior, Eladio Loizaga as Minister of Foreign Affairs and Germán Hugo Rojas Irigoyen as Minister of Finance. Juan Afara was sworn in as Vice-President. Prior to his inauguration, Cartes had concluded a governability pact with deputies from the PLRA, UNACE, Avanza País and the Partido Encuentro Nacional in an effort to bolster the Partido Colorado’s legislative position.

Cartes’ accession to the presidency precipitated the re-establishment of diplomatic relations between Paraguay and many of its neighbours, and the country was readmitted to UNASUR in late August 2013. However, rejoining MERCOSUR proved to be more complicated owing to the ongoing dispute over Venezuela’s membership of the organization. In September Cartes held talks on the matter with his counterparts in Argentina and Brazil, while in the following month the Paraguayan and Venezuelan ministers responsible for foreign affairs met for discussions. This latter engagement resulted in Paraguay and Venezuela restoring diplomatic relations, and in early December Paraguay also renewed ties with Bolivia. Later that month, in a major concession, the Congress finally ratified Venezuela’s accession to MERCOSUR. The formal approval of Venezuela’s membership effectively marked an end to the dispute and to Paraguay’s regional isolation. Paraguay resumed active membership of the group and was to be officially reintegrated into MERCOSUR at the organization’s next summit meeting.

With Paraguay’s regional relations now largely normalized, Cartes turned his attention to the domestic challenges confronting his administration. The EPP had remained active throughout 2013, staging a number of deadly attacks against the security forces and wealthy landowners in Concepción and San Pedro. Shortly after assuming the presidency, Cartes (using controversial new powers accorded to him by the Congress) instructed the army to commence anti-EPP operations in the affected departments, and in October the Government announced that the military presence in the region was to be made permanent. Meanwhile, demonstrations and strikes were organized by trade unions, student associations and rural groups in late 2013 and early 2014 to protest against the Government’s neo-liberal economic agenda. The resumption of violent unrest and land occupations in rural areas in early 2014 was a further source of concern for the new administration.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

Peru

The Republic of Peru lies in western South America. Since independence from Spain, achieved in 1824, Peruvian politics have been characterized by alternating periods of civilian and military administration. In 2000 a political crisis caused the resignation of Alberto Fujimori some six months after his controversial re-election for a third presidential term. In 2001 Alejandro Toledo was elected President; he was succeeded in 2006 by former head of state Alan García. In 2011 the left-wing nationalist Ollanta Humala won the presidential election. Lima is the capital. The official languages are Spanish, Quechua and Aymará.

Area and Population

Area:

1,285,216 sq km

Population (mid-2014):

30,814,175

Population density (mid-2014):

24.1 per sq km

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

74.5 (males 71.9; females 77.3)

Finance

GDP in current prices (World Bank estimates, 2012):

US $203,790m. ($6,796 per head)

Real GDP growth (preliminary, 2013):

5.8%

Inflation (Lima metropolitan area, average change in consumer prices, 2013):

2.8%

Currency:

new sol

Government and Politics

A new Constitution was promulgated on 29 December 1993. Executive power is vested in the President, who is elected for a five-year term by universal adult suffrage. There is no immediate re-election. The President governs with the assistance of an appointed Council of Ministers. Legislative power is vested in a single chamber Congress consisting of 130 members (increased from 120 following the 2011 elections, in accordance with a 2009 constitutional amendment). The members of the Congress are elected for a five-year term by universal adult suffrage. For administrative purposes, Peru comprises 24 regions and one province.

Head of State:

President Lt-Col (retd) Ollanta Moisés Humala Tasso

Head of Government:

President of the Council of Ministers Ana Jara Velásquez

Last election:

Presidential, second round, 5 June 2011

Next election:

Presidential and legislative, due April 2016

Recent political developments

During 2013 the Humala administration was beset by internal instability, as well as by an increasing level of popular dissatisfaction with many of its policies that was manifested in approval ratings of just 26% by the end of the year. A controversial plan to reintroduce compulsory military service (abolished in 1999), in an attempt to address the problem of declining numbers joining the armed forces, was ruled unconstitutional in June 2013. The unpopular proposal had been criticized for targeting the poor, as it allowed exemption from the service by payment of a fee. The narrow legislative approval of public sector reforms in July prompted large demonstrations across the country. Critics of the new measures claimed that they would result in a loss of jobs and reduced autonomy for universities, and rejected the Government’s claim that they would lead to improved quality in the civil service and teaching professions.

The resignations of the three ministers responsible for foreign affairs, external trade and development and social inclusion (the latter following the introduction of a free school meals programme in which many children were poisoned by poor quality food) increased the sense of instability within the Government in mid-2013. Moreover, in October César Villanueva, the Regional President of San Martín, became the fourth prime minister since Humala’s election in mid-2011, when he replaced Juan Jiménez, following the latter’s resignation. In an attempt to build a degree of consensus and address the administration’s increasing unpopularity, Humala had initiated a series of cross-party talks in August 2013. It appeared that ongoing investigations into prominent opposition figures, such as Toledo and García, had led to tensions within the Government and a potential loss of support for Humala in the Congress. By October, however, both PP and PAP had decided not to participate in the talks, following criticism by Humala of Toledo and García, former PP and PAP leaders, respectively, who both had expressed interest in contesting the presidency in 2016.

A serious corruption scandal in November 2013 prompted the resignations of Minister of the Interior Wilfredo Pedrazo and Adrián Villafuerte, a close adviser of Humala, and the suspension of six senior police officials. A series of allegations implicated the national police service in the protection of corrupt networks in the country, most notably those connected with Oscar López Meneses, a notorious businessman and known associate of Fujimori’s disgraced former head of national security, Vladimiro Montesinos, who was serving a lengthy prison sentence for multiple convictions on corruption offences (see above). In addition to the institutional problems confronting the administration, the Congress’s decision in November to appoint Marta Chávez to lead the parliamentary human rights group appeared to confirm the Government’s image as profoundly disconnected from public opinion. The appointment of Chávez, a former staunch ally of Fujimori, known for her dismissal of accusations of human rights violations under his administration, provoked expressions of outrage and large demonstrations in Lima.

The Humala administration suffered a further decline in popularity in early February 2014 after it was revealed that the President had signed a decree almost doubling the salaries of ministers and other senior civil servants. Ministerial pay had been halved by President García in 2006; nevertheless, the news was not well received, particularly in light of a three-year public sector pay freeze and of reforms to the civil service approved by the Congress in July 2013. Later in February 2014 the President of the Council of Ministers, César Villanueva, resigned after indicating that an increase in the minimum wage was imminent. President Humala’s wife, Nadine Heredia, contradicted the prime minister the following day, as did the Minister of Economy and Finance, Luis Castilla Rubio. The Minister of Labour and Employment, Nancy Laos, also stepped down from her post after supporting Villanueva. On 24 February René Cornejo Díaz, hitherto minister responsible for housing, was appointed President of the Council of Ministers. Humala reallocated seven other ministerial portfolios at the same time. The controversy exposed government disunity and prompted opposition claims that Heredia wielded too much influence on Humala’s administration. The new Council of Ministers only received congressional approval in mid-March after Cornejo gave assurances that there would be no ‘interference’ in the running of the country, highlighting the increasing disunity within the Government.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

Puerto Rico

The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico mainly comprises the island of Puerto Rico, lying east of Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea. After 1898 Puerto Rico was administered as an ‘unincorporated territory’ of the USA. In 1952 a Constitution assigned Puerto Rico the status of a self-governing ‘Commonwealth’ in its relations with the USA. In 2012, in a non-binding referendum, voters opted for Puerto Rico to become the 51st State of the USA. San Juan is the capital. The official languages are Spanish and English.

Area and Population

Area:

8,959 sq km

Population (mid-2014):

3,620,897

Population density (mid-2014):

404.2 per sq km

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

78.5 (males 74.9; females 82.4)

Finance

GDP in current prices (World Bank estimates, 2012):

US $101,496m. ($27,678 per head)

Real GDP growth (preliminary, year ending 30 June 2013):

0.2%

Inflation (average change in consumer prices, preliminary, 2013):

1.0%

Currency:

US dollar

Government and Politics

On 3 July 1950 the Congress of the United States of America adopted Public Law No. 600, which was to allow ‘the people of Puerto Rico to organize a government pursuant to a constitution of their own adoption’. This Law was accepted by referendum in 1951. A new Constitution was drafted in which Puerto Rico was styled as a Commonwealth, or ‘estado libre asociado’, ‘a state which is free of superior authority in the management of its own local affairs’, though it remained in association with the USA. This Constitution, with its amendments and resolutions, was ratified by the people of Puerto Rico on 3 March 1952, and by the Congress of the USA on 3 July 1952. The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico was established on 25 July 1952. The Constitution may be amended by a two-thirds’ vote of the Puerto Rican legislature and by the subsequent majority approval of the electorate.

Executive power is vested in the Governor, elected for a four-year term by universal adult suffrage. The Governor is assisted by an appointed cabinet. Legislative power is held by the bicameral Legislative Assembly, comprising the Senate (with 27 members) and the House of Representatives (51 members). Additional members may be assigned in each chamber to ensure adequate representation of minority parties. The members of both chambers are elected by direct vote for four-year terms. The Resident Commissioner, also elected for a four-year term, represents Puerto Rico in the US House of Representatives, but is permitted to vote only in committees of the House. Puerto Ricans are citizens of the USA, but those resident in Puerto Rico, while eligible to participate in national party primary elections, may not vote in presidential elections.

Head of State:

President Barack Obama

Head of Government:

Governor Alejandro García Padilla

Last election:

Legislative and gubernatorial, 6 November 2012

Next election:

Legislative and gubernatorial, November 2016

Recent political developments

In April 2010 the US House of Representatives voted in favour of a bill that would allow Puerto Ricans to determine their future relationship with the USA. It would provide for a referendum asking islanders if they wanted to change their political status. If the answer was no, eight years would elapse before the same question would be asked again. However, if the answer was yes, a second referendum would be held, offering a choice between statehood, independence or ‘sovereignty in association with the United States’. Many observers, however, considered that it was unlikely that islanders, who were facing the imminent loss of important government subsidies and tens of thousands of jobs, would want to endanger their current relationship with the USA. The bill failed to receive approval by the US Senate during the 2009–11 congressional term and hence expired in January 2011. In March the US presidential task force on the status of Puerto Rico again recommended a two-stage referendum, and in June US President Barack Obama, while on an official visit to the island (the first by a US President since 1961), declared his support for another plebiscite. Consequently, Fortuño, who was in favour of statehood, ratified legislation in December providing for a referendum to be conducted on 6 November 2012. The status questions to be posed to the electorate remained broadly the same as those announced in 2010, but both questions would be asked simultaneously, thus obviating the need for a second referendum. US congressional and presidential approval would have to be secured before any change to the status quo could be legally enforced.

An unrelated constitutional referendum was held on 19 August 2012. The electorate voted against proposals to reduce the size of the Legislative Assembly and to restrict bail rights under certain circumstances. In both cases, the ‘no’ vote represented approximately 55% of the ballot; turnout was only 35.5%.

In the gubernatorial election, conducted on 6 November 2012, the PPD’s candidate, Alejandro García Padilla, attracted 47.9% of the votes cast, narrowly defeating the incumbent Fortuño, who garnered 47.0%. The PPD also performed well in the legislative polls, gaining control of 28 of the 51 seats in the House of Representatives and 18 of the 27 seats in the Senate. The remaining seats were secured by the PNP, with the exception of one Senate seat won by the PIP. Pierluisi was re-elected as Resident Commissioner in Washington, DC. In the concurrent status referendum, in which 1.7m. people participated, 54.0% of voters declared themselves to be dissatisfied with the territory’s existing relationship with the USA. Of the 1.3m. who answered the follow-up question, 61.2% supported a transition to statehood, 33.3% voted in favour of sovereign free association and 5.5% endorsed independence. (However, when taking the substantial number of blank votes into consideration, the statehood option only accounted for 45% of the ballot.) The referendum results were non-binding. The rate of participation by the electorate (in the elections and the referendum) was 78.2%.

In April 2013 the US Administration requested financing from Congress of US $2.5m. to fund a further, binding, plebiscite on Puerto Rico’s status, and in May Pierluisi submitted a referendum bill to the US House of Representatives. García, Pierluisi and PIP leader Rubén Berríos Martínez attended a US Senate committee hearing in August to discuss the territory’s status and the proposed referendum. However, in November approximately 2,000 people staged a demonstration in San Juan to protest against the lack of progress on the statehood question. Funding for the plebiscite was authorized by the US Congress in January 2014, and another referendum bill (equivalent to that tabled by Pierluisi) was introduced in the US Senate in the following month.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

The Dominican Republic

The Dominican Republic occupies part of the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea. Gen. Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Molina dominated the country from 1930 until 1961. In 1962 Dr Juan Bosch Gaviño became President. Bosch’s overthrow in a coup in 1963 led to civil war in 1965. Dr Joaquín Balaguer Ricardo of the Partido Reformista Social Cristiano served as President between 1966 and 1996. He was finally succeeded by Leonel Fernández Reyna of the Partido de la Liberación Dominicana (PLD), who remained in office until 2012 when he was succeeded by his party colleague Danilo Medina. The capital is Santo Domingo. Spanish is the official language.

Area and Population

Area:

48,734 sq km

Population (2014):

10,378,267

Population density (2014):

213.0 per sq km

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

73.2 (males 70.2; females 76.5)

Finance

GDP in current prices (World Bank estimates, 2012):

US $59,047m. ($5,746 per head)

Real GDP growth (2013):

4.1%

Inflation (average change in consumer prices, 2013):

4.8%

Currency:

peso

Government and Politics

Under the Constitution that was introduced in January 2010, legislative power is exercised by the bicameral Congreso Nacional (National Congress), with a Senado (Senate) of 32 members and a Cámara de Diputados (Chamber of Deputies) comprising 190 members. Members of both houses are elected for four years by universal adult suffrage. Executive power lies with the President, who is also elected by direct popular vote for four years. He is assisted by a Vice-President and a Cabinet. Judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Court of Justice and the other Tribunals. The Dominican Republic comprises 31 provinces, each administered by an appointed governor, and a Distrito Nacional (DN) containing the capital.

Head of State:

President Danilo Medina Sánchez

Head of Government:

President Danilo Medina Sánchez

Last election:

Presidential, 20 May 2012

Next election:

Legislative and presidential, May 2016

Recent political developments

In March 2011 former President Mejía was elected as the PRD’s candidate to stand in the upcoming presidential ballot. President Fernández announced in April that he would not seek re-election, which would have required further amendment of the Constitution and, according to the President, may have increased tensions in the country. His wife, Margarita María Cedeño de Fernández, announced shortly thereafter that she would compete in the primary election to select the PLD’s presidential candidate. However, she withdrew from the contest later that month, reportedly because of disquiet among factions within the party. In the event, Danilo Medina Sánchez (who had been defeated by Mejía in the 2000 presidential election) won the primary vote in June and was formally named as the ruling party’s presidential nominee in August. Despite earlier tensions with Fernández, Medina selected Cedeño to be his vice-presidential candidate in November. The PLD and the PRSC formed an electoral alliance in February 2012.

In the presidential election, held on 20 May 2012, Medina secured a first round victory, winning 51.2% of the valid votes cast compared with 47.0% for Mejía. The rate of participation by the electorate was 70.2%. The opposition accused the ruling party of electoral fraud and the abuse of state resources, although international monitors were generally satisfied with the conduct of the election. In accordance with a constitutional amendment approved in 2009, overseas voters also elected seven additional deputies to the Cámara de Diputados to represent the Dominican diaspora; the PRD won four of these seats and the PLD gained control of the remaining three. Medina was inaugurated on 16 August and the new Cabinet that was installed on the same day included nine ministers from the outgoing administration.

Medina’s initial priority was the implementation of fiscal reforms to curtail the public sector deficit, which had grown substantially owing to costly electricity subsidies and the expansionary spending policies of the Fernández administration. Legislation to restructure the tax system received congressional approval in November, and an austerity budget was adopted in the following month. However, the planned tax rises proved to be highly contentious, and anti-Government protests were staged with the support of civil society organizations and the PRD.

In January 2013 the PRD’s disciplinary board expelled Mejía from the party for allegedly instigating disunity. His expulsion had ostensibly been orchestrated by the PRD’s President, Miguel Vargas Maldonado, who led a rival wing of the party. The PRD had been beset by factional infighting since Mejía’s defeat in the presidential election, and outbreaks of violence had been reported on multiple occasions.

The Government announced reform of the police force in early 2013, in order to improve public security. The police service had been widely accused of corruption and human rights abuses. Although a number of senior officers were replaced during that year, no substantive progress was made with the Government’s broader objective of effecting a major structural reorganization of the police force. Meanwhile, soldiers were controversially deployed in mid-2013 to assist the police in their patrols.

In March 2014, in its International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, the US Department of State described the Dominican Republic as ‘an important transit country’ for narcotics, although it stressed that efforts to reduce the flow of narcotics through the country had been ‘highly successful’.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

Uruguay

The Eastern Republic of Uruguay lies on the south-east coast of South America. Military intervention in civilian affairs led, in 1973, to the closure of Congress. In 1985 the military relinquished power. From independence from Spain in 1825, democratic government alternated between two parties: the Colorados (‘reds’, or Liberals), and the Blancos (‘whites’, or Conservatives, now known as the Partido Nacional); however, this was brought to an end in 2004 when Tabaré Ramón Vázquez Rosas, the candidate of the Frente Amplio (FA), a predominantly left-wing coalition, was elected to the presidency. The FA retained the presidency in 2009. Montevideo is the capital. The language is Spanish.

Area and Population

Area:

176,215 sq km

Population (mid-2014):

3,404,189

Population density (mid-2014):

19.3 per sq km

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

76.9 (males 73.5; females 80.4)

Finance

GDP in current prices (World Bank estimates, 2012):

US $49,920m. ($14,703 per head)

Real GDP growth (preliminary, 2013):

4.4%

Inflation (Montevideo, average change in consumer prices, 2013):

8.7%

Currency:

peso uruguayo

Government and Politics

Uruguay is a republic comprising 19 departments. Under the 1967 Constitution, which has been amended from time to time, executive power is held by the President, who is directly elected by universal adult suffrage for a five-year term. The President is assisted by the Vice-President and the appointed Council of Ministers. Legislative power is vested in the bicameral Congress, comprising the Cámara de Senadores (Senate) and the Cámara de Representantes (Chamber of Representatives), also directly elected for five years. The President, the Vice-President, the Senators (who number 31, including the Vice-President, who is automatically allocated a seat as President of the Senate) and the 99 Deputies are elected nationally. Judicial power is exercised by the five-member Supreme Court of Justice and by tribunals and local courts.

Head of State:

President José Alberto Mujica Cordano

Head of Government:

President José Alberto Mujica Cordano

Last election:

Presidential, second round, 29 November 2009

Next election:

Presidential and legislative, 26 October 2014

Recent political developments

In October 2012 Uruguay became the second country in Latin America (after Cuba) to legalize abortion, after the Senate approved a law allowing for termination in the first 12 weeks of pregnancy. This followed the narrow endorsement of the proposal, by 50 votes to 49, by the Chamber of Representatives in the previous month. The realization of the Government’s social reform programme continued in April 2013 when Uruguay became the second country in Latin America (after Argentina) to legalize same-sex marriage. The legislation also provided for an increase in the age of consent to 16 years (from 12 years for females and 14 years for males). However, the administration’s proposal to legalize the marijuana industry (first mooted in mid-2012) proved more controversial, and a lack of public support prompted Mujica to suspend the legislative process in late 2012. Advocates claimed that the elimination of the underground marijuana market would reduce criminal activity associated with the illegal drugs trade, but the proposal was harshly criticized, domestically and internationally. Nevertheless, the bill was approved by the Senate, by 16 votes to 13, in December 2013 (following its narrow approval by the Chamber of Representatives in July). Mujica pledged to continue his liberal reform agenda in 2014, with proposals to restrict the sale of cheap alcoholic beverages, to limit the purchase of land by foreign companies and to alter the regulation of the country’s media.

Despite widespread concern about public security and crime, as well as significant opposition among Uruguayans to the legalization of marijuana, Mujica remained a popular figure, well liked for his unpretentious way of speaking and modest lifestyle. In early 2014 it therefore appeared likely that the FA would retain office following the presidential and legislative elections scheduled for October of that year. Although presidential candidates would not be formally announced until June, it seemed highly probable that former President Tabaré Vázquez, who remained popular nationally and was regarded as a unifying figure within the ruling alliance, would secure the nomination of the FA (Mujica being ineligible to stand under the constitutional ban on successive re-election). Pedro Bordaberry was widely predicted to be nominated for the Partido Colorado, while Jorge Larrañaga appeared likely to secure the nomination of the Partido Nacional.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry

Venezuela

The Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela lies on the north coast of South America. Venezuela was a Spanish colony from 1499 until 1821 and, led by Simón Bolívar, achieved independence in 1830. The country was principally governed by dictators until 1945. In 1992 two unsuccessful military coups were mounted against President Pérez, the first of which was led by Lt-Col (retd) Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías. In 1998 Chávez was elected President. He was re-elected, under a new Constitution, in 2000, in 2006 and in 2012. Chávez died in March 2013 and was succeeded by his Vice-President Nicolás Maduro. Caracas is the capital. The language is Spanish.

Area and Population

Area:

916,445 sq km

Population (mid-2014):

30,206,307

Population density (mid-2014):

33.0 per sq km

Life expectancy (years at birth, 2012):

74.5 (males 71.6; females 77.5)

Finance

GDP in current prices (World Bank estimates, 2012):

US $381,286m. ($12,729 per head)

Real GDP growth (preliminary, 2013):

1.3%

Inflation (average change in consumer prices, 2013):

40.7%

Currency:

bolívar fuerte

Government and Politics

Venezuela is a federal republic comprising 23 states, a Capital District and 72 Federal Dependencies. Under the Constitution, which was promulgated on 30 December 1999, legislative power is held by the unicameral Asamblea Nacional (National Assembly). Executive authority rests with the President. The President is elected for six years by universal adult suffrage. The President has extensive powers, and is assisted by a Council of Ministers. Each state has a directly elected executive governor and an elected legislature. Judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Tribunal of Justice (Tribunal Supremo de Justicia) and by the other tribunals.

Head of State:

President Nicolás Maduro Moros

Head of Government:

President Nicolás Maduro Moros

Last election:

Presidential, 14 April 2013

Next election:

Legislative, September 2015

Recent political developments

Faced with a deteriorating economy (the annual rate of inflation stood at 40.7% in 2013), on 19 November the National Assembly controversially granted Maduro the authority to legislate by decree for one year. The President asserted that this new power would allow him to introduce urgent economic reforms and to address comprehensively the problem of corruption in the country. Strict currency and price controls contributed to widespread shortages of basic goods across the country. One of the first decrees introduced by Maduro concerned the control of prices of basic goods, and of price increases. Profits on the sale of imported goods were to be limited to 30%. The Government attributed the mark up on prices, which had made many products unobtainable for the majority of the population, to business owners allied to the opposition, while the shop owners themselves blamed the Government’s interventionist policies for the economic decline. Earlier in the month the Government had seized control of a chain of electronics stores after the company was found to be increasing the retail price by more than 1,000% compared to the import cost. Maduro also approved the creation of a state-run agency to improve logistics and transport of products between shops and factories, in order to ease shortages of basic goods. Lengthy prison sentences were introduced for those found guilty of hoarding goods. A body to oversee the allocation of foreign currency to businesses and individuals was also established: it was estimated that the ‘black market’ US dollar was worth almost 10 times the official, fixed rate US dollar. In March 2014 the Central Bank introduced a new, more liberal exchange rate system.

Despite the economic problems, the PSUV (and its allies) performed strongly in municipal elections held on 8 December 2013, securing control of 242 of the country’s 335 municipalities, compared with 75 for the MUD and 18 for independent candidates. Although this was a decline from the 267 municipalities that the ruling party had won in 2008, the results were nevertheless regarded as an endorsement of President Maduro and his policies. Maduro effected a cabinet reorganization in January 2014, replacing the ministers responsible for industries, labour, education, university education, youth, sport and the office of the presidency.

The country had the third highest murder rate in the world in 2013 (79 per 100,000). The problem was brought to international attention in January 2014 by the high-profile murders of a former Miss Venezuela and her former partner. The shootings prompted the President to organize a meeting with the country’s governors and mayors in order to announce a new anti-crime initiative, based on the Plan Patria Segura, originally launched in June 2013. Nevertheless, in early February 2014 students in the western states of Mérida and Táchira staged demonstrations in protest against the country’s ailing economy and high levels of crime. The demonstrations soon spread to other western states, as well as the capital, after a number of students were arrested (and allegedly mistreated) following violent unrest in Táchira. Opposition activists also began participating in the protests, which gradually expanded into a broader-based, nationwide anti-Government movement. On 12 February violent clashes broke out in the capital between protesters and pro-Government militants, resulting in the deaths of three people. President Maduro accused the protesters of attempting to stage a ‘coup’, while opposition leaders alleged that pro-Government forces had instigated the violence. Leopoldo López, leader of the Voluntad Popular opposition grouping and one of the co-ordinators of the opposition ‘La Salida’ (Exit) movement that was seeking Maduro’s departure from office, was deemed by the authorities to be responsible for the disorder and was arrested later that month. Nevertheless, the protests continued and many more deaths were subsequently reported, while President Maduro’s efforts to initiate peace talks with the opposition were unsuccessful. At the end of February the National Assembly approved an additional US $1,900m. in food imports to alleviate shortages, and in April it was announced that identity cards for grocery purchases were to be introduced in an attempt to ration basic goods and prevent their resale on the ‘black market’ at inflated prices.

In March 2014 another opposition leader, María Machado, was dismissed as an independent deputy by the President of the National Assembly, Diosdado Cabello, after she had attended an OAS conference in the USA to testify on the ongoing protests. Cabello cited a constitutional rule barring deputies from accepting invitations from foreign governments without prior approval of the National Assembly. The ruling was endorsed by the Supreme Tribunal of Justice at the end of the month. Amid growing international concern about the political crisis in the country, a ministerial delegation from the Union of South American Nations (Unión de Naciones Suramericanas, UNASUR) visited Venezuela in late March on a fact-finding mission, and UNASUR-mediated peace negotiations between the Government and the MUD commenced in early April. Following a third round of talks, in late April the two sides announced that further discussions would be held on opposition demands for, inter alia : the establishment of a truth commission to investigate the violence of February–March; an amnesty for all imprisoned protesters; and the demobilization of pro-government paramilitary forces. According to official figures, at least 42 people had been killed during the political unrest by early May, while some 800 had been injured and 2,300 people arrested.

Citation: Argentina, in Europa World online. London, Routledge. Retrieved 22 September 2014 from http://www.europaworld.com/entry