Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Collaboration Principles and Practices

Outline

Following reading the chapter, students should:

  1. Identify similarities and differences in collaboration, teaming, and consultation
  2. Explain the principles and practices for collaboration
  3. Cite examples of positive and negative collaboration
  4. Identify pragmatic issues that present barriers to collaboration

Collaboration, Teaming, and Consultation

Collaboration

Collaboration is a goal-oriented, mutually beneficial process used to address problems, promote strengths, resolve differences, and educate involved individuals through shared responsibility for the outcomes of the collaborative process

Teaming

Teaming is:

  • A preventive process that aims at anticipating and resolving issues (explore a problem or present a solution)
  • Determining steps that must be taken to resolve a problem (complete a specified task)
Consultation

Consultation is clearly a collaborative process, but may have a hierarchical element because of the consultant’s expertise and role, which reduce the equality of the relationship among those involved

Comprehension Check

  1. What is a definition of collaboration? Can you put this in your own words?
  2. What is a definition of consultation? Can you put this in your own words?
  3. Are you able to distinguish between collaboration and consultation?

Collaboration Principles and Practices

Collaboration involves:

  • Two or more parties working together.
  • Considers the collaborating individuals as equal partners.
  • A choice of those involved and is voluntary.
  • Sharing responsibility among those involved for outcomes, positive or negative.
  • Identifying and working toward a common goal.
  • The influence of factors (such as school climate, resources) other than the individuals involved.
  • A planned, formal process or a more spontaneous and more informal process.
  • Sharing of resources, knowledge, and skills.
  • Developing a community.
  • At times, uneven amounts and levels of work among those involved.
  • At times, a process where the parties working together change.

Working Together

This may seem an obvious principle; however, it may be violated rather easily. For example, two individuals on a team may disagree on the role of the team. They may also disagree as to the goals of the team.

Equal Partners

It is possible for a single member or small group of individuals to dominate the process. Instead, members should agree that they must work as a unit, sharing their thoughts, feelings, concerns, strengths, and weaknesses in order to achieve their goals.

A Choice

On some teams or in some consultations, one or more members may be “ordered” to participate. This, in turn, can lead to resentment and a failure to work together or as equal partners. All members should be given a choice.

Sharing Responsibility

For successful collaboration, members of the team must share responsibility for the outcomes of the process. Regardless of the outcomes being positive or negative, team members accept that collectively and independently they are answerable for whatever is derived from the collaboration.

Identifying a Common Goal

For collaboration to be successful, those involved must agree on one or more common goals.

The Influence of Other Factors

At times, even when other principles and practices of good collaboration are present, other factors may influence the success, or lack thereof, of the work.

A Planned, Formal Process or an Informal, Spontaneous Process

Generally, a planned process is desirable, as it demonstrates organizational commitment to the collaborative or consultative processes. However, this is not always possible and at times may not be necessary.

Sharing of Resources, Knowledge, and Skills

Professionals and parents share their resources, knowledge, and skills to the betterment of other team members or consultants when collaboration is successful.

Developing a Community

When people collaborate or consult regularly, they must by necessity get to know each other better. This includes sharing professional knowledge and skills but often also results in knowledge about individual team members’ lives outside the professional realm.

Uneven Amounts and Levels of Work

Perhaps there are few variables that can derail collaboration and consultation efforts more than perceptions by one or more team members that he/she/they are bearing the brunt of the work evolving from the collaboration process.

A Process Where the Parties Change

In any collaborative or consultative effort, it may become apparent that new members need to be involved and/or perhaps one or more current members need not remain on the team. This can be an adaptive, healthy process or one that is likely to harm the process.

Comprehension Check

  1. Can you identify each of the principles and practices of collaboration and consultation?
  2. Are you able to cite a positive example of each principle and practice?
  3. Are you able to cite a negative example of each principle and practice?

Barriers to Successful Collaboration and Consultation

Conceptual Barriers

Conceptually, teachers may already have their own ideas and thoughts of how a school system should operate; direct collaboration could disturb these ideas.

Pragmatic Barriers

Pragmatically, a logical time or schedule for collaboration to occur may be difficult to ascertain.

Attitudinal Barriers

Attitudinally, change of roles, practices, or schedule can breed anxiety without collegial support.

Professional Barriers

Professionally, educators may be at different levels of professional development themselves. Different philosophies and skills among professionals can lead to a breakdown in collaboration

Comprehension Check

  1. What are the barriers to collaboration and consultation?
  2. Can you articulate positive examples of how barriers might be overcome?

Case Studies

1.1 Illustrative Case Study

At the end of her first quarter as the new principal of a high school, Ms. Hodges notices that her assistant principal, Mr. Getty, is spending nearly all his time handling discipline referrals to the office. Ms. Hodges consults with Mr. Getty and understands that he is unable to perform other duties and that the referrals are coming from a wide variety of teachers from different grade levels and content subject areas. It appears the issue is a school-wide one.

Ms. Hodges and Mr. Getty decide they need a team to discover why there are so many referrals and what might be done to reduce this trend. They ask the teachers who have sent many students to the office with referrals for three volunteers and a group of teachers who have made no or very few referrals for three volunteers. After getting their six volunteers, they realize they have no teachers responsible for teaching mathematics, so they ask for another volunteer from that group. Finally, they ask the school counselors for a volunteer from among that group. Mr. Getty agrees to serve as the initial facilitator for the team, but he agrees with Ms. Hodges that at the initial team meeting, the members should elect a facilitator, timekeeper, recorder, and spokesperson. The team members are given time after school to meet, and they elect members to different roles.

The team identifies goals including: (a) analyzing the data from referrals, including what days and times of the day they occur; (b) determining whether students being referred are repeat offenders and how many are new or one-time referrals; and (c) identifying the typical reasons (infractions) for referrals and the outcomes of the referrals. Team members form subcommittees to study each goal area and to report back to the entire team in two weeks. Following the subcommittee reports, the whole team is able to identify that the primary problem seems to be that there are not sufficiently articulated behavior management guidelines for teachers or students and that because each teacher is using her or his own classroom management plan, students are often unclear about behavioral expectations resulting in referrals.

The team proposes a set of guidelines for teachers and students and plans for a day of training for teachers and a morning of training for students where they act out examples and non-examples of appropriate behavior. The team identifies clear consequences for infractions. They also form a subcommittee to continuously study data from referrals and the impact on the changes made.

After a few weeks, the subcommittee reports to the entire team that the new procedures are resulting in fewer referrals. The team surveys all teachers and students about the new procedures and how they help and what, if any, questions or concerns they have. The overall team plans ways in which their guidelines can be modified and how to implement those modifications. Finally, the team continues to monitor outcomes and report to the faculty the results of their data collection. All the team members accept their responsibilities and collectively respond to the positive and negative outcomes of their efforts. The team continues to function for the remainder of the year, and many team members volunteer to continue the next year.

1.2 Application Case Study

Assume you (a third grade general education teacher) and a colleague (a third grade special education teacher) are charged with forming a collaborative team to analyze student achievement test data and make recommendations for improving student outcomes. The principal asked for volunteers to steer the committee at the outset, and you and your colleague volunteered. Your school is a K–5 building with 9% of students on Individualized Education Programs (IEPs). There are six grade level teams consisting of four teachers on each team (three general education teachers and one special education teacher). In addition, the school has the principal, one assistant principal, one school counselor, and one speech and language pathologist.

Divide your own classroom (college/university classroom) into pairs or small groups and consider and discuss each of the following:

  1.  What would be the ideal number of team members to address the student achievement testing?
  2. Who would be ideal as members?
  3. How would you select members if you have an abundance of volunteers or would you include everyone who volunteered?
  4. Would you have an election once the committee was formed for various roles (facilitator, timekeeper, recorder, spokesperson)?
  5. What might be your global goals (e.g., compile all achievement testing data)?
  6. What might you consider to be the most likely barriers?
  7. What principles and practices did you apply on your own college/university team?
    1. Were there any disagreements and if so, which principles, practices, or barriers were illustrated in your own group?

Return to a large group and compare your pair/small group responses. Were different approaches to collaboration present in different groups? Were different principles, practices, and barriers identified in different pairs/small groups?

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Chapter 2: Effective Collaboration at the School and District Levels

Outline

Following reading the chapter, students should:

  1. Identify similarities and differences in continuing teams and ad hoc teams at the school and district levels
  2. Explain how to organize effective meetings
  3. Explain how to facilitate effective meetings

School and District Collaborative Teams

Continuing teams are focused on ongoing tasks that schools and districts must contend with yearly.

Task forces or ad hoc teams are organized when a need arises and are focused on a particular issue that is not typically ongoing.

High-performing and successful teams avoid the pitfalls associated with these disadvantages. These teams are able to identify their purpose and goals, recruit their best talent, and help those who are affected by decisions understand decisions and perspectives.

Advantages to Teams Disadvantages to Teams
Broad perspectives/diverse points of view Teams can be time consuming and difficult to schedule
Members learn more about how decisions are made at the school and district levels “Group think” can occur, causing members to get along with other members
Better informed decisions can be made Prone to riskier decisions or interventions, as one individual does not have to assume responsibility
A culture of collaboration and commitment can be formed Group polarization can cause others to perceive unfairness in team decisions
Morale can be increased and greater participation in decision making tends to mediate some disagreements The logistics of organizing teams can be difficult, particularly ad hoc teams

Comprehension Check

  1. What is a continuing team? Give an example of an area a continuing team might address.
  2. What is an ad hoc team? Give an example of an area an ad hoc team might address.
  3. What are some advantages to using teams to address school and district issues?
  4. What might be some disadvantages to using teams to address school and district issues?
  5. What are some characteristics of high-performance teams?

Organizing and Facilitating Effective Team Meetings

Once the need for a team is identified, the team must be organized. Once organized, a team must begin its work with someone facilitating the process.

Organizing Teams

This process includes:

  • Identifying the team members.
  • Identifying the roles of team members.
  • Identifying the specific task(s) to be addressed (in some cases where a team is formed to explore a problem, this step may be part of an ongoing process).
  • Identifying outcomes for the team to deliver.
  • Identifying methods for evaluating the success of the collaboration for achieving the outcomes.

Comprehension Check

  1. What are some important considerations in selecting team members?
  2. What constitutes a good description of a team task?
  3. What are important considerations in identifying team outcomes and assessing those outcomes?
Facilitating Effective Teams

First, as a facilitator, you must know who to invite to the meeting.

Second, good facilitators develop an agenda for the meeting.

Third, make sure everyone knows the time and location of meetings.

Fourth, establish the rules for the team process, particularly decision making.

Fifth, the facilitator should be authentic.

Sixth, during the meeting, the facilitator may deal with difficult people who are members of the team or interested observers.

Finally, seventh, after a meeting, the facilitator should follow up to make sure that decisions are being implemented, actions are being taken, information is being distributed, and the team process/meeting is evaluated as to its effectiveness and how it might be improved.

Comprehension Check

  1. What is the importance of the agenda for a meeting and how might it be organized?
  2. What strategies should a facilitator use during a team meeting to ensure the process is moving forward?
  3. What are some strategies for interacting with difficult people in a team meeting?
  4. What should the facilitator do as a follow-up to the team meeting?

Case Studies

2.1 Illustrative Case Study

It is August of the new school year, and Ms. Higgins, the principal of Richards Middle School, is anxious to implement a new program. The faculty is at the school days ahead of the students to receive in-service and practice in implementation of a new writing-across-the-curriculum program. While all teachers are not directly responsible for teaching English Language Arts, the school is implementing this program to strengthen their students’ writing skills in each academic content area.

Initially, in the previous school year, Ms. Higgins and her continuing team of faculty who examine achievement test scores noted that their students’ writing scores had been edging downward for two years, with more students scoring lower than proficient and fewer scoring at advanced levels. Ms. Higgins initiated an ad hoc committee to determine what programs might be implemented to reverse this trend. Specifically, she identified team members and asked them to address a specific task: identify and recommend one or more writing programs that could possibly be implemented school-wide to increase writing test achievement test scores. The ad hoc team, having been formed from a combination of volunteers and some specific people identified by Ms. Higgins, identified their outcomes: (a) identify at least two writing programs that would be feasible to be implemented; (b) present these programs to the faculty and administration; (c) outline costs, advantages, disadvantages, and implementation issues for each program presented; and (d) poll the faculty and administration as to which program was preferred.

The same ad hoc team worked throughout the summer learning all the “ins and outs” of implementing the preferred program and preparing for the in-service. Ms. Higgins was available for consultation and support, but she let the team make decisions and plan, as she wanted this to be a faculty-led initiative. Finally, the team provided the in-service to the faculty and the new school year began.

Ms. Higgins realized the ad hoc committee should become a continuing committee so that fidelity of implementation of the writing program, ongoing in-service, and assessment of student learning outcomes could occur during the school year (not just in terms of achievement test scores). Some of the ad hoc committee members chose to remain on the new continuing team while some were replaced with new volunteers and selected individuals. In this way, the continuing team had new members to provide new insights and ideas. The continuing team identified its tasks, outcomes, and assessment procedures for measuring the outcomes and presented these to faculty and the administration to obtain approval from all constituencies prior to implementation of their plan.

2.2 Application Case Study

It is mid-September, and Arnold School is a month into the new school year. One issue that has arisen is how to best progress monitor first-third graders’ reading and math benchmarks (e.g., alphabetic principles, phonological skills, word identification, reading fluency, numeration concepts, computation skills, mathematical reasoning, and application skills).

Arnold School is unique in that it is a K–12 single-building school in a rural area with separate wings in the building for the elementary, middle, and high school students and faculty. There is one superintendent for the district/building and one principal each for the elementary, middle, and high school grades. Each wing has about 100 students, six general education faculty, one special education faculty member, one counselor, and several educational aides and administrative support staff.

Divide the students in your own classroom (college/university classroom) into pairs or small groups and consider and discuss each of the following:

  1. Would you need two teams, one for reading and one for math, or would one team suffice for both areas?
  2. Who should be included on the team? Should you only have elementary teachers because the assessments focus on first through third grade students, or would you include middle and/or high school teachers?
  3. Research Response to Intervention processes and how and when progress monitoring is typically conducted in first through third grades. Then determine an agenda for your initial team meeting.
  4. What rules would you suggest to ensure team processes are fair, respectful, and purposeful?
  5. What roles would you need to include for the team to be effective?
  6. What might be an overall length of time you would suggest for deciding on what assessments will be used, how often they will be administered, and by whom?
  7. What would be important to do as a follow-up to each team meeting?

Share in the large group your decisions and why you arrived at those decisions. Be sure to consider again if you had disagreements among your own group and how you handled these disagreements.

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Chapter 3: Pre-referral Assessment and Intervention: RTI Tiers 1 & 2

Outline

Many children struggling in the classroom will receive support in the general education classroom, not through special education. These supports and services may be provided in Tier One and Tier Two of the RTI model. These two tiers of the RTI model provide the pre-referral data of services and interventions that are tried before special education services are investigated.

  • The RTI model aims to produce three things:
    • High-quality instruction and interventions matched to students’ individual needs
    • The utilization of learning rate and levels of academic performance
    • Important academic decisions based on data from learning rate and levels of academic performance
  • Each tier of the RTI model provides more intensive interventions for students, beginning at Tier One.
  • The RTI model has replaced the discrepancy model in some schools and districts.
  • In the RTI model, a special education teacher plays four main roles:
    • Manager
    • Diagnostician
    • Interventionist
    • Collaborator
  • As a manager, the special education teacher is responsible for managing his/her caseload or grade levels. This may include completing paper work for intervention plans, progress reports, or IEPs.
  • As a diagnostician, the special education teacher diagnoses students’ strengths and weaknesses. This may be done through administering assessments, interviews, or record reviews.
  • As an interventionist, the special education teacher is responsible for providing his/her time to either provide interventions or instruct others on how to provide interventions. In some schools, special education teachers may provide interventions through a resource room or co-teaching models.
  • In order to be successful at each of the three aforementioned roles, a special education teacher must be an excellent collaborator. The roles cannot be successfully performed without assistance and information from other educational professionals.

Tier One of the RTI model consists of effective instruction using evidence-based methods in the general education classroom. This tier begins with a universal screening or assessment in core content areas.

  • Ongoing curriculum-based measure assessments monitor progress in this tier.
  • Services, mainly differentiation of instruction, is completed by the general education teacher in this tier.
  • Special education teachers provide support and collaborative relationships in Tier One, but typically do not provide the primary instruction or intervention.

Tier Two of the RTI model consists of more intensive interventions and services. The beginning of this tier usually starts when the general education teacher’s observations and data show that the student is continuing to struggle despite the evidence-based practices at Tier One.

  • Tier Two incorporates curriculum-based assessments, data driven instruction, and services found at Tier One.
  • Tier Two incorporates fidelity checks to verify that interventions and instructions are implemented appropriately.
  • Tier Two involves more collaboration and team-based support.
  • Parents play a key role in Tier Two services and interventions and should be involved in the process.
  • In Tier Two, the special education teacher plays a larger role in terms of services and instruction. This requires more collaboration with other professionals.
  • Tier Two can be divided into two broad areas:
    • Pre-referral assessments
    • Pre-referral intervention
  • There are three steps to pre-referral assessment:
    • Identifying the target behavior in general terms
    • Defining the target behavior in observable and measurable terms
    • Analyzing the target behavior to determine cause
  • Pre-referral intervention may include providing more instruction, different types of instruction, more individualized attention, or a different curriculum that addresses the student’s area of need.

The way Tier Two operates and functions will depend on the school and district. Two generally accepted forms of Tier Two models are standard protocol and problem solving.

  • The standard protocol approach allows for evidence-based interventions that are predetermined to be implemented quickly to meet a student’s needs.
  • The standard protocol approach may save a district time and resources, but meets only the general needs of a student instead of the specific and individual needs.
  • The problem-solving approach is designed to meet the specific needs of an individual child; however, it requires much more time and resources.
  • Schools may also implement a hybrid approach combining both standard protocol and problem solving, depending on the child.

Case Studies

3.1 Illustrative Case Study

Role of the Special Education Teacher

Mrs. Jones is a special education teacher at Millford Heights Elementary School. She begins her work day before school starts, attending a meeting with the school administrator and other teachers on the third grade level team to discuss the results of a district-wide reading assessment. Mrs. Jones assists in interpreting the data and looking at the overall strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum currently being implemented. The team decides that, while overall the curriculum is meeting their students’ needs, more support is needed for comprehending figurative language. At the conclusion of the meeting, the reading specialist agrees to look into supplemental curriculum for figurative language. The general education teachers and Mrs. Jones agree to contact the parents of seven students whom the team feels are not making adequate progress and work together to develop additional interventions and supports.

During the first two periods, Mrs. Jones co-teaches in Mrs. Roth’s third grade classroom. In this class, there are two students on IEPs, as well as three who require Tier Two interventions in math and/or language arts. During math, Mrs. Jones supports Mrs. Roth’s instruction and then provides more intensive and guided support to a small group of students. During the second period, Mrs. Jones and Mrs. Roth divide the class into two heterogeneous groups and parallel teach a lesson they co-planned. They decided to discuss the effectiveness of the lesson at lunch and analyze which students need additional support.

Third period is Mrs. Jones planning period. During this time, she calls the parents of one of her students to discuss his progress and address any concerns the parents may have. A fourth grade teacher, Mr. Parnell, stops in to ask Mrs. Jones for suggestions on how to support a student’s classroom behavior. Mrs. Jones agrees to observe the student after lunch and then meet with Mr. Parnell and the parents before school the next day. Mrs. Jones spends the rest of the period completing progress reports for parents.

During lunch, Mrs. Jones meets with Mrs. Roth to discuss the language arts lesson them co-taught and make adjustments to tomorrow’s lesson plan, and then performs recess duty where she informally observes two of her students’ social skills. She makes a mental note to meet with their classroom teacher to develop a plan to address social skills, mainly turn taking, with the two students, as well as four other students in the class.

After lunch, Mrs. Jones conducts small group interventions in four half-hour intervals in the resource room for students in grades three and four. The first three groups involve language arts interventions in fluency and comprehension. The last group is math intervention for fourth graders that reteaches and builds on the concepts their classroom teacher taught earlier that day. This last group requires a great deal of communication with the fourth grade teacher to ensure that the lessons are providing the proper curriculum and the needed supports to ensure optimal student progress.

During the last period of the day, Mrs. Jones conducts the observation on Mr. Parnell’s fourth grade student and develops a list of suggestions and ideas to discuss with Mr. Parnell and the student’s parents in the morning.

After school, Mrs. Jones completes all the needed documentation for the day. She grades her students’ math and language arts work, reflects on her day, and makes sure she has planned and prepared for her lessons and meeting tomorrow.

Throughout the day, Mrs. Jones is collaborating with various professionals and parents to fulfill the four roles often required in the RTI process.

Discussion questions:

Identify the times throughout the day that Mrs. Jones served as a manager, a diagnostician, and as an interventionist.

At what points throughout the day was collaboration required?

Could Mrs. Jones effectively fulfill her roles without being a collaborator? Why or why not?

Overview:

Mrs. Jones begins her day as a diagnostician. She helps interpret district-wide assessment results and uses information to guide curriculum changes. She ends that meeting as an interventionist working to determine appropriate interventions and supports for seven struggling students.

Mrs. Jones continues her day as an interventionist by co-teaching in Mrs. Roth’s class and spends her planning period as a manager by contacting parents and completing progress reports.

Throughout lunch and the afternoon, Mrs. Jones is an interventionist planning and conducting lessons, a diagnostician doing both informal and formal student observations, and a manager completing paper work and preparing for meetings.

Throughout the entire day, Mrs. Jones is a collaborator. She collaborates with school administrators, reading specialists, teachers, and parents. Mrs. Jones could not be effective in her roles as a diagnostician, interventionist, and manager without her ability to collaborate and build effective relationships.

3.2 Application Case Study

Charlie

Charlie is a student in Mrs. Murray’s third grade class. Charlie’s universal screening at the beginning of the year indicated that he was substantially behind his peers in reading fluency and comprehension. Mrs. Murray reported the assessment results to Charlie’s mother and implement scientifically valid teaching practices using curriculum-based, short-cycle assessments to guide her instruction in the general education classroom. Mrs. Murray continued to monitor all of her students including Charlie and made adjustments to her teaching to meet the students’ needs.

Mrs. Murray noticed that Charlie’s assessment results indicated that he was continuing to struggle. She then began to provide Charlie more supports, working with him one-on-one or in small groups, teaching specific skills and providing additional supports to assist him. She made adjustments to lessons, provided more choral reading, rereading of passages, and oral as well as written instruction. Mrs. Murray continued to monitor Charlie and noticed that that the changes were having limited impact on Charlie’s performance.

Mrs. Murray spoke with Charlie’s mother about her concerns, and together they decided to refer Charlie to the school’s Tier Two pre-referral support team.

You are a member of the team charged with determining Tier Two supports and interventions for Charlie. In small groups, answer the following questions to help guide your discussion and decision.

  1. What do you currently know about Charlie and his academic concerns?
  2. What additional information would you like to know about Charlie? What assessments would you recommend? What other types of information would be beneficial?
  3. What interventions have already been tried?
  4. Who are the team members who should be involved in determining Tier Two supports and services for Charlie?
  5. Brainstorm possible interventions for Charlie.
  6. What interventions and supports does your group recommend for Charlie in Tier Two? Who is responsible for providing those services or supports? How will the progress of these services be monitored?

Return to a large group and compare your small-group responses. What challenges or difficulties did each group face in determining Tier Two supports and interventions? Were the interventions and supports the same in every group? Was each team member’s input valued? Discuss as a large group how a team must compromise and collaborate in this process.

Application Activities

Pre-referral Assessment and Intervention: RTI
Tiers One and Two

  1. Have candidates develop a step-by-step flowchart on the main components of Tier One and Two of RTI. Make sure the candidates include decision-making points. Have candidates reflect on how their role will impact each of these decisions.
  2. Have candidates interview a special education teacher about his/her role in the RTI process. Be sure to have the candidates include questions about each of the four roles.
  3. Have candidates develop a Venn diagram about how the roles of the special education teacher and general education teacher are alike and different in Tiers One and Two of the RTI process.

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Chapter 4: Referral and Identification for Special Education, RTI Tier 3

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should be able to:

  1. Summarize the laws that guide special education and protect the rights of people with disabilities
  2. Explain the team-based procedures used to determine eligibility for special education
  3. Identify the types of formal and informal assessments used in the eligibility process
  4. Cite the importance of the team in the IEP process
  5. Determine the role of team members in the eligibility and IEP process

Referral Procedures

Legal Provisions

The eligibility determination and implementation of the special education process is guided by laws designed to protect the rights of people with disabilities and ensure they receive an appropriate education.

Americans with Disabilities Act–ADA defines a disability as a physical or mental impairment that impacts one or more major life activities. It is a civil rights law designed to protect people with disabilities from discrimination by promoting accessibility in places of employment and any entity that provides services.

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act–504 is a civil rights law and has the same definition of a disability as ADA. It protects a person with disabilities from discrimination in any place, program, and/or organization that receives federal financial assistance by requiring they provide reasonable accommodations to people with disabilities.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act–IDEA identifies 13 specific disabilities, each with a qualifying definition, that have the potential to impact a student’s education and learning. IDEA is an educational law that provides more protection for students with disabilities, age birth to 21 years, than the reasonable accommodations provided by either ADA or Section 504. IDEA guarantees students with disabilities the right to zero rejection, nondiscriminatory testing, a free and appropriate public education, least restrictive environment, due process, and parental participation.

Zero Rejection–A child cannot be denied a publicly funded appropriate education no matter his or her disability.

Nondiscriminatory Testing–To determine special education eligibility, a multi-factored evaluation must occur using unbiased assessments.

Free and Appropriate Public Education–All students are guaranteed a free and appropriate education or FAPE.

Least Restrictive Environment–A child should not be moved from the general education classroom due to a disability unless it is absolutely necessary for the well-being of the child.

Due Process–The process and procedures are in place to determine eligibility, develop an IEP, and provide services in a timely and nondiscriminatory manner.

Parental Participation–Caregivers have the right to participate in the design and implementation of their child’s education program.

Comprehension Check

  1. Why is it important for team members to be knowledgeable about the laws designed to protect people with disabilities?
  2. How do IDEA and Section 504 differ? How are they alike?
  3. Which provisions of IDEA affirm the team’s role in the special education process?
  4. How does IDEA support a check and balance system approach?

Eligibility Team-Based Practices

The determination of eligibility begins with a referral. Once a referral is made, the parents or guardians are contacted by the team to explain the process, establish a collaborative working relationship, and obtain parental consent. It is important that parents are fully aware of the eligibility process and procedures, as well as their rights of parental participation.

Multi-factored Evaluation

A multi-factored evaluation (MFE) is a team-based information gathering process to determine if a student is eligible for special education.

Formal Assessment Instruments

The types of formal assessments used in a MFE may include developmental assessment, screenings, individualized intelligence tests, individualized academic achievement tests, adaptive behavior scales, behavior rating scales, and specific related-services assessments.

Developmental assessments are a type of rating scale typically used with children birth to five years.

A screening is a short assessment designed to identify potential problems.

Individual intelligence tests measure a student’s cognitive ability or intelligence quotient (IQ) in comparison to others.

An individual academic achievement test is often administered if there is an academic content area of concern.

Adaptive behavior scales assess strengths and areas of need in general areas, such as daily living skills and community participation, and more specific areas, such as social skills, motor skills, communication, and generalizing basic academic skills.

When a student exhibits inappropriate classroom behaviors that interfere with his/her learning or the learning of others, then a behavior rating scale may be administered.

Informal Assessments

There is more to a student than what can be determined by tests and therefore formal assessments alone cannot provide a complete picture of a student and his/her strengths and areas of need. Informal assessment information should also be obtained to provide a clearer picture and ensure proper identification. Such assessments are:

  • Interviews or questionnaires given to caregivers
  • Interviews done with the student
  • Observations of the student
  • Ongoing progress monitoring through curriculum-based measurements
  • Review of a student’s academic history

Comprehension Check

  1. Why is it important to having a team-based approach for determining eligibility for special education?
  2. What determines which assessments are used in a student’s MFE?
  3. How is determining eligibility for early intervention services different from determining eligibility for school-based services? How are they alike?

Individualized Education Program

Once a child has been identified as having a disability and deemed eligible for special education services, the team then begins writing an individualized education plan or IEP. The IEP is a legal document that details the students free and appropriate education, as well as his/her least restrictive environment.

Writing an IEP

Present Levels of Performance (PLOP)–PLOPs are utilized to create and monitor educational goals.

Goals–goals state a student’s expected degree of growth in one year in a particular area of need. They are observable, measurable statements aligned with a PLOP and detail a learning target that the student will work toward during the course of a year.

Special Education and Related Services–specific special education and related services that a student needs to participate and make progress in school.

Other Team Decisions

Some other important decisions the IEP team must make are in regard to assessments and transitions. The team must decide if the student will participate in statewide and district-wide assessments or alternate assessments and what accommodations are necessary, if any, to adequately measure a student’s academic or functional achievement.

Team Members Roles

Determining eligibility and writing an IEP are both team-based processes. Key team members for both eligibility and IEP are the parents or guardians, general education teacher, special education teacher, school administrator, and, if at all possible, the student her or himself.

Parents are the experts on their child and the only consistent team members throughout their child’s educational career.

Comprehension Check

  1. What are some of the important decisions that the team must make in the IEP process?
  2. What is the purpose of establishing a PLOP?
  3. How is the IFSP different than the IEP?
  4. What is the role of each of the key team members in the eligibility and IEP process?

Case Studies

4.1 Illustrative Case Study

Samantha is a student in Mrs. Washington’s third grade class with a history of reading difficulties. Samantha has attended the same school since kindergarten, and her teachers first reported concerns about her reading fluency in first grade. Samantha has been provided effective Tier One instruction and was referred to Tier Two intervention in the middle of second grade. While in third grade, Samantha has continued to receive Tier Two interventions, but Mrs. Washington is concerned that Samantha is not making adequate progress and is falling further behind her peers. Mrs. Washington expresses her concerns to Samantha’s parents, and together they decide to refer Samantha to determine if she is eligible for special education.

The eligibility team consists of a special education teacher, the school psychologist, the school principal, Mrs. Washington, and Samantha’s parents. During the team’s first meeting, the eligibility process and their parental rights are conveyed to Samantha’s parents. Her parents gave written consent to the process. The team decided that as part of the multi-factored evaluation, Samantha should receive an individualized intelligence test, an individualized reading achievement test (since reading is her academic area of concern), a hearing and vision screen, and be formally observed. They decided against conducting an adaptive behavior scale and a behavioral rating scale because Samantha was not experiencing difficulties in either of those areas. The team also decided that they did not foresee a need for Samantha to receive any related services and determined that assessment for those services were not needed at that point. The team did decide that background information, a medical history, and academic history, as well as progress monitoring or curriculum-based measurement results should be included in the MFE. The team then assigned tasks to each member and developed a timeline and assessment schedule to ensure that the MFE was completed and the ETR written within 60 days.

The school psychologist, who is trained to administer an individualized intelligence test, will assess Samantha using the Woodcock–Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities to determine her general intelligence ability and specific cognitive abilities.

The individualized reading achievement test will be administered by the special education teacher using the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Third Edition (WIAT-III). This assessment will be used to determine Samantha’s oral language, total reading, basic reading, reading comprehension and fluency, and written expression achievement scores. The team decided not to administer the mathematics or math fluency portions of the WIAT-III, because mathematics is not an area of concern for Samantha.

The school nurse agreed to conduct hearing and vision screenings on Samantha and report her findings to the team.

Mrs. Washington stated that Samantha appears to have a harder time focusing as the school day progresses, so the team decided to conduct two observations, one in the morning and one in the afternoon. The school psychologist will observe Samantha in the morning while the special education teacher will observe her in the afternoon.

Mrs. Washington and Samantha’s parents will meet to gather Samantha’s background information and medical history. The team discussed the type of information they felt would be most beneficial.

The school administrator will gather Samantha’s school records, including school and district-wide assessment results, as well as previous report cards. The administrator also plans on meeting with Samantha’s previous teachers to get their input.

Mrs. Washington will also provide progress monitoring data and current grades and assessment records for Samantha.

Once all the assessments and the needed information gathered, the results will be compiled into an ETR. The team will then reconvene to determine if Samantha is eligible for special education and if so under which disability category.

4.2 Application Case Study

You are a team member charged with writing an IEP for Jeremy. For this activity, you are charged with writing two IEP goals, one academic and one behavioral or function based on the following case study:

You are in an IEP meeting for Jeremy, a fourth grade student with a learning disability. According to the progress monitoring and assessment results, Jeremy is able to add single and two digit numbers under 20 without carrying consistently (nine out of ten problems correct on average), but he is not able to subtract either single or double digit numbers with any consistency (two out of ten problems correct on average).

Jeremy is able to work cooperatively in groups but does not appear to have any friends. Jeremy, at times, acts out when he is frustrated, especially in math class (on average four times per week). When frustrated, Jeremy typically balls his paper up, throws it on the floor, puts his head down, and yells out “math is stupid”.

Jeremy is also missing approximately 50% of all independent in-class assignments and 40% of homework assignments in all of his classes (language arts, math, science, and social studies). His teachers have reported that if they stand next to Jeremy and help him with his work, he is more likely to complete the assignment. Jeremy has expressed that he “does not do homework” and thinks it is “stupid”.

Divide your class into groups of three and assign each member a role of a parent, general education teacher, or special education teacher. Role play an IEP meeting and as a team determine the following:

  1. Which academic challenge does Jeremy face that most affects his participation in school or learning?
  2. What is Jeremy’s current level of performance in regard to this academic challenge?
  3. What other information, if any, is needed to develop a clear picture of Jeremy’s current levels?
  4. Write an academic IEP goal for Jeremy.
  5. Which functional or behavioral challenge does Jeremy face that most affects his participation in school or learning?
  6. What is Jeremy’s current level of performance in regard to this functional or behavioral challenge?
  7. What other information, if any, is needed to develop a clear picture of Jeremy’s current levels?
  8. Write a behavioral or functional IEP goal for Jeremy.
  9. What special education and related services are needed to support Jeremy in achieving these goals?

Return to a large group and compare your small group responses. What challenges or difficulties did each group face in determining their goals? Were the goals the same? Was each team member’s input valued? Discuss as a large group how a team must compromise and collaborate in the IEP process.

Application Activities

Referral and Identification for Special Education:
RTI Tier Three

  1. Have candidates research the court cases that led up to the passage of the Education of All Handicapped Children Act (currently known as IDEA). Candidates should include cases such as Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, Diana v. State Board of Education, Guadalupe v. Tempe Elementary School, Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia, and PARC v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.
  2. Have candidates develop a flowchart of the steps leading from referral to determining eligibility and writing the IEP. Be sure to include the steps where parental consent is needed.
  3. Have the candidates observe an eligibility and/or IEP meeting. Candidates should pay special attention to the role of each team member. If attending a meeting is not possible, have the students participate in a mock IEP meeting and assume different roles (e.g., general education teacher, special education teacher, parent, and student).
  4. Have candidates develop a chart identifying the roles of each of the team members in the eligibility and IEP process.

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Chapter 5: Students with Disabilities

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

  1. Identify the role of the team in determining the existence of disabilities, especially learning disabilities, intellectual disabilities, and emotional disturbances
  2. Understand the primary characteristics of the disabilities under IDEA
  3. Recognize the importance in considering the individual person rather than the characteristics of the disability in determining an educational plan
  4. Recognize the types of instructional considerations needed to determine the appropriate education for a student with disabilities

High-Incidence Disabilities

Learning Disabilities (LD)

Affects the way a person learns and processes information. It accounts for the largest category of students under IDEA and affects approximately 5% of the total U.S. public school population.

Considerations for the Team

The student has difficulties processing, understanding, and/or using language, but typically the cause of this difficulty is unknown. Through the eligibility process, the team will exclude vision, hearing, physical or motor impairments, intellectual disability, emotional disturbances, or any environmental, cultural, or economic factors as the cause for the learning difficulties. These exclusions leave a learning disability as the most likely cause.

The second way a team can determine eligibility for LD under IDEA is by documenting a student’s lack of response to appropriate intervention. This is often done through a multi-tiered system of support such as RTI.

Intellectual Disability (ID)

Intelligence refers to a person’s general mental capability and involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience.

Considerations for the Team

IDEA’s definition of an intellectual disability has four main eligibility components: cognitive ability, adaptive behavior, age of onset, and effect on education. The team needs to consider all four in determining eligibility for special education and related services.

Emotional Disturbance (ED)

A condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child’s educational performance:

  • An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors;
  • An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers;
  • Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances;
  • A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or
  • A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems. The term includes schizophrenia.
Considerations for the Team

The student may have an unexplained inability to learn that is not the result of a cognitive deficit (low IQ), a sensory problem (hearing or vision), or health problem. The student may appear to have no friends or close relationships and/or have difficulties developing relationships with either peers or adults. The student may exhibit behaviors that are deemed improper for the situation or respond in emotionally inappropriate ways.

It is important for the team to remember that the range of behaviors and lack of specific defining characteristics can make determining ED eligibility more subjective than for other disabilities that rely on more specific characteristics or assessment scores.

Speech and Language Impairment (SLI)

A communication disorder, such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.

Considerations for the Team

An SLI is an abnormal development of speech or language and is typically diagnosed by a speech and language pathologist. This abnormal development can be found in the student’s articulation, fluency, voice, and/or language. It is important for the team to remember that an SLI differs from a language delay.

Comprehension Check

  1. What does the team need to know about when determining eligibility for an LD?
  2. What are the eligibility criteria for ID?
  3. What makes collaboration essential for determining ED?
  4. Why does the team need to know the difference between a speech and language delay and a SLI?

Low-Incidence Disabilities

Nine disabilities are considered to be low-incidence disabilities because combined they encompass only about 20% of students served under IDEA. Low-incidence disabilities often involve a diagnosis by a medical professional of a specific condition, disease, or impairment.

Autism

A developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age three, which adversely affects a child’s educational performance.

Considerations for the Team

Autism affects a person’s behavior (repetitive or fixated patterns of behavior), socialization (play and developing relationships), and communication (use and understanding pragmatics, expressive and receptive language).

It is important for the team to remember that autism is a spectrum disorder and does not affect all students the same. Forty percent of students with ASD have average or above average intelligence, 25% are nonverbal, others may have an intellectual disability or strong visual, math, artistic, or musical abilities.

Deaf-Blindness

Simultaneous hearing and visual impairments, the combination of which causes such severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness.

Considerations for the Team

Deaf-blindness does not mean that a student has no vision and no hearing, but he/she does have a significant degree of both vision and hearing loss that causes such educational issues that the student cannot be accommodated in a special education program for students who are only deaf, only blind, or have multiple disabilities.

Deafness

A hearing impairment so severe that a child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification, that it adversely affects a child’s educational performance.

Considerations for the Team

A person who is deaf cannot hear most, if any, sound including spoken language. Deafness does not affect a student’s cognitive ability, but students who are deaf often need specialized instruction to help with speech, communicating, and participating in school.

Hearing Impairment

An impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance but is not included under the definition of “deafness”.

Considerations for the Team

As opposed to deafness, students who are hard of hearing do have some degree of hearing. The hearing impairments may be slight, mild, moderate, severe, or profound and may make it difficult for the student to hear, decipher, and use spoken language. Again, this impairment does not affect cognitive ability.

Multiple Disabilities (MD)

Simultaneous impairments (such as intellectual disability-blindness, intellectual disability-orthopedic impairment) in which the combination of impairments causes such severe educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for one of the impairments.

Considerations for the Team

This category does not include Deaf-Blindness. MD typically affects more than a student’s cognitive ability; therefore, functional, behavioral, and daily living skills should be considered when developing an educational plan.

Orthopedic Impairment

The term includes impairments caused by a congenital anomaly, impairments caused by disease (e.g., poliomyelitis, bone tuberculosis), and impairments from other causes (e.g., cerebral palsy, amputations, and fractures or burns that cause contractures).

Considerations for the Team

It is important for the team to know that there are three main types of orthopedic impairments: neuromotor impairments, degenerative diseases, and musculoskeletal disorders.


Neuromotor impairments

abnormality of, or damage to, the brain, spinal cord, or nervous system that sends impulses to the muscles

Degenerative diseases

how muscles develop

Musculoskeletal disorders

disorders that result in physical limitations

Other Health Impairment (OHI)

Having limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment, that

  1. is due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and Tourette’s syndrome; and
  2. adversely affects a child’s educational performance.
Considerations for the Team

The law includes examples of multiple types of neurological and medical disabilities; the team needs to remember that those are not the only disabilities covered under OHI. The team also needs to consider not only the student’s academics but also his/her level of strength, energy, and/or attentiveness when determining appropriate interventions, services, and supports.

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

An acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment, or both, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The term applies to open or closed head injuries resulting in impairments in one or more areas, such as cognition; language; memory; attention; reasoning; abstract thinking; judgment; problem solving; sensory, perceptual, and motor abilities; psychosocial behavior; physical functions; information processing; and speech.

Considerations for the Team

A person is not born with a TBI, nor is it a disease, but it is brain damage that occurs after birth and is typically caused by an accident or injury that changes how the brain functions. Traumatic brain injuries can affect how a person moves, acts, thinks, and learns, leading to physical disabilities, social, and/or emotional problems, cognitive issues, and behavioral problems.

Visual Impairment Including Blindness

An impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The term includes both partial sight and blindness.

Considerations for the Team

It is important for the team to remember that visual impairment does not necessarily mean blindness and that visual impairments can range from mild to severe but do not affect a student’s cognitive abilities.

Developmental Delay (Only used in some states, ages three to nine)

Delays in one or more of the following areas:

  • physical development;
  • cognitive development;
  • communication development;
  • social or emotional development; or
  • adaptive development.

Because of the developmental delays, the student needs special education and related services.

Considerations for the Team

Students with developmental delays have deficits in at least two areas of physical, cognitive, communication, social or emotional, or adaptive development. This delay may be temporary in that the student overcomes the deficit with the appropriate interventions, or the student may eventually become eligible for services under another disability category.

Comprehension Check

  1. What are the low-incidence disabilities?
  2. Why are disabilities considered low incidence?
  3. Why does the team need to remember to consider the student first when developing an individualized plan rather than relying on the characteristics of the disability?

Other Educational Considerations for the Team

Accommodations

Supports provided that do not change the expectations set for typically developing peers. Accommodations are designed to allow students to learn or show their knowledge without the interference of their disability or lowering expectations.

Modifications

Modifications lower expectations by typically making a student accountable for less knowledge.

Instructional Strategies

Students with disabilities often need direct, specific, and concrete instruction for academic behavioral and functional tasks and skills. Direct instruction can also be used and includes explaining the skill or knowledge the student is going to learn, teaching the skill or knowledge, modeling the skill or use of the knowledge, and having the student practicing it while providing feedback as to what the student is doing well and what he/she needs to improve upon.

Comprehension Check

  1. Why is it important for the team to consider accommodations before considering modifications?
  2. What are four different types of accommodations?
  3. How can direct instruction improve the educational outcome for students with disabilities?

Case Studies

5.1 Illustrative Case Study

Connie is a second grader at C. J. Frank Elementary school and has been referred to the team for a suspected learning disabilities in reading. She is eight years old and has normal vision and hearing. Her teacher, Mr. Joel, describes her as cooperative and likable with no behavioral problems.

Since kindergarten, Connie has been taught using an evidence-based curriculum and instructional approach but has had difficulty with reading, including learning the letters of the alphabet, decoding initial sounds, and memorizing sight words. Connie enjoys being read to, but when compared to her peers, she takes longer to learn and master new language and reading related concepts.

Connie has received Tier Two reading interventions since the middle of first grade, including Title 1 reading support and Reading Recovery in which she made some progress but did not complete the program successfully within the allotted time. The Title 1 teacher reports that, although Connie has made some small gains, progress is very slow. Connie requires several “reteachings” of a lesson before she masters the skill.

Mr. Joel reports that Connie continues to struggle in reading and is falling further behind her peers. She has mastered first grade print concept standards (understanding organization and basic features of print and recognizing features of a sentence) but struggles with the phonological awareness and the phonics and word recognition standards especially in terms of knowing and applying phonics and word analysis skills. Connie does not consistently sound out words when she reads aloud, often replaces words that have the same beginning sounds (e.g., dog and dirt), and has difficulty with combining sounds and blends (e.g., “sh”). She struggles with fluently reading early first grade material, which appears to affect her ability to comprehend what she has read. Most other students in her second grade class are able to read grade-level text and complete reading activities independently.

Connie’s parents report that they also have concerns about her progress in reading. In talking with Mr. Joel, they expressed concerns that Connie will get increasingly frustrated with learning to read and give up if she does not begin making more progress. After meeting with the team and discussing the interventions tried and the options available, Connie parents gave permission for her to be given a multi-factored evaluation to determine if she has a learning disability.

As part of the MFE, the team decided to formally evaluate Connie using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III) and the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT) with the following standard score results:

WISC-III
Performance IQ 107
Verbal IQ 89
Full Scale IQ 98
WIAT
Basic Reading 67
Mathematics Reasoning 91
Spelling 86
Reading Comprehension 74
Numerical Operations 101
Listening Comprehension 92
Oral Expression 90

The team used a failure of Response to Intervention approach in conjunction with the Ability-Achievement Severe Discrepancy model to determine if Connie has a learning disability. The team determined that Connie has a history of reading difficulties even after being provided effective classroom instruction and more intensive Tier Two interventions (Reading Recovery and Title 1). Her performance, visual, and full-scale intelligence assessment results indicated Connie has an average IQ (performance 107, verbal 89, and full scale 98), while her basic reading academic achievement results were 67 and significantly below average (over two standard deviations or 31 points lower than her full scale IQ). After eliminating all other possible causes (hearing, vision, intellectual disability, or environmental factors) and determining that she had received appropriate education, the team determined Connie had a learning disability.

5.2 Application Case Study

Mrs. Peatree is an engaging ninth grade social studies teacher whose typical lesson involves lectures and PowerPoints. Students enjoy her class because she is a gifted storyteller. Parents appreciate her because she holds students accountable and sets high expectations. She expects her students to be engaged in class, take notes, and complete assignments that involve critically analyzing historic material and documents.

Carter is a student in Mrs. Peatree’s class with a learning disability. Carter reads at a fourth grade level and has difficulty with spelling and handwriting but loves history.

  1. List the possible areas that Carter might experience difficulties in Mrs. Peatree’s class.
  2. What information can Mrs. Peatree share with the team in regard to her class to help the team identify appropriate accommodations?
  3. What are two types of presentation accommodations that might benefit Carter? How might these accommodations help?
  4. What are two types of response accommodations that might benefit Carter? How might these accommodations help?
  5. Are there other accommodations that may also be beneficial? If so, what and how are they beneficial?

Application Activities

  1. Have the candidates use Venn diagrams to examine the similarities and differences in specific disability categories such as learning disability and emotional disturbance, or learning disability and intellectual disability.
  2. Have candidates research the possible causes of autism spectrum disorder or compare how the diagnostic criteria has changed from DSM-4 to DSM-5.
  3. Provide the candidates with a simulation of what it is like to have certain disabilities. For example, have students write or play cards without using their dominate hand, have the candidates write a sentence with their eyes closed, or listen to a story with their ears plugged and then answer comprehension questions.
  4. Have the candidates interview a teacher or parent of a child with a disability and discuss how the disability affects the child in everyday life.

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Chapter 6: Effective Strategies for Collaboration across Grade Levels

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

  1. Identify the six essential components for cross-grade level collaboration
  2. Explain the special considerations for cross-grade level collaboration across grade bands
  3. Describe the roles of content area and specialist teachers in collaboration
  4. Describe organizational structures to support cross-grade level collaboration

Cross-Grade Level Collaboration

Comprehension Check

  1. Which processes are supported by cross-grade level collaboration?
  2. How can cross-grade level collaboration facilitate consistent identification of disability in classrooms?

Essential Components for Cross-Grade Level Collaboration

Collaboration across grade levels to support transitions from grade to grade needs to be a primary consideration when teachers collaborate with one another. In schools in which a collaborative culture across the grade levels does not exist, students may transition from a classroom in which the expectations of the teacher and curriculum positioned the student as disabled, to a classroom in which the expectations shift and the disability is no longer readily apparent. There are six essential components for cross-grade collaboration:

Time

To maximize the impact of collaborative time on student learning, it is recommended to devote ten hours a week for teachers to engage in time to think and work with colleagues on instructional plans.

Shared Goals

As a collaborative group of colleagues, teachers need to identify the shared goals they have that are grounded in the needs of their students and the specific culture of their school. Developing shared goals to which all the teachers in a school feel invested facilitates cross-grade collaboration.

Student Centered

For cross-grade level collaboration to impact teaching and learning, the goals of the group should be aligned to the individual classroom goals of each teacher involved.

Professional Learning

In order to plan meaningful professional learning experiences for teachers, planning must begin with the end goal of student learning. Keeping in mind the shared goals of the group and the outcomes desired for student learning are at the heart of planning meaningful professional learning experiences for any collaborative group.

Reflection

Cross-grade collaboration, particularly in its beginning stages, requires teachers to reflect on which components are working well and which components may need to be revised as teachers consider the needs of students across the grade levels in the school.

Community

A strong school community leads to increased collaboration among colleagues who are comfortable sharing with one another, teaching in front of peers, and giving and receiving feedback. Community is both an outcome and a requirement of cross-grade collaboration.

Comprehension Check

  1. List the six essential components to cross-grade level collaboration.
  2. Describe the assessment-instruction process. What component should be at the center of this process?
  3. How can collaborative inquiry support collaboration across grade levels?
Developmental and Age-Level Considerations for Cross-Grade Level Collaboration
Early Childhood Grades

The early childhood grade band includes preschool through grade three. Collaboration among all of these professionals is a chief responsibility as young children enter school for the first time at the beginning of this grade band and progress to the end of the grade band, where they must be prepared for the demands of the intermediate grades. Transition decisions in the early years of school are critical to the development of a solid foundation for future success for students. Teachers at the early childhood level must collaborate across grade levels to consider students’ readiness for the academic and social demands of preschool through third grade. Decisions about grade retention in these early years of school are less impactful on the social and identity development of the student than they can be as students grow and become more a part of their peer group.

Middle School

The middle school grade band involves grades four through nine. Middle schools are typically designed to foster collaboration among teachers. Content area teachers specialize in one or two areas, and students begin to change classes to meet with these teachers. Teams of three to four teachers are formed to provide students with a “home base” within the larger middle school environment.

High School

High schools are traditionally organized according to content areas in which teachers form teams within specific departments according to their identified content areas. High school teachers can benefit from cross-grade level collaboration that also supports cross-curricular connections. For all students, but in particular for those in need of additional support, the initial steps to acquiring a skill may lie within the standards of one content area but grow and expand within the standards of another content area and across grade levels.

Comprehension Check

  1. How can cross-grade level collaboration at the early childhood level support effective kindergarten transitions?
  2. Describe the specific considerations of cross-grade level collaboration at the middle school level.
  3. How do high school teachers implement cross-grade level collaboration to support student success?
Organizational Structures That Provide Time Needed for Cross-Grade Level Collaboration

Finding the time and space for collaboration is likely the most significant barrier facing any school. Specific structures that provide time needed for cross-grade level collaboration include professional learning communities and team planning time.

Professional Learning Communities

Professional learning communities provide the time and space for cross-grade level collaboration to occur, as teachers pursue topics of inquiry grounded in their interests and needs, not those specifically pertinent to their individual grade level. Professional learning communities can provide an outlet for cross-grade level collaboration within a school building, but it can also provide a bridge for teachers who need to expand beyond their school doors.

Comprehension Check

  1. Describe how professional learning communities can help teachers to collaborate across grade levels.
  2. What are some ways in which schools can provide time for team planning among teachers?
Team Planning

The concept of a team of teachers within a school attends to the essential components to cross-grade level collaboration discussed previously; specifically, community and shared goals. Schools that are supportive of teachers working in cross-grade level teams need to provide time and space for team planning to occur. Time for team planning at multiple levels is essential for teachers to engage in deep, collaborative discussions surrounding student learning.

Case Studies

6.1 Illustrative Case Study

One school district found the benefits to cross-grade level collaboration when representatives from each school in the district came together for a yearlong professional development experience focused on the implementation of the Common Core State Standards for the English Language Arts (Sableski & Arnold, 2015). The representatives joined the group with the understanding that a “train-the-trainer” approach would be used, in which the representatives would spend time engaging in in-depth study surrounding the standards, and then they would bring that information back to their colleagues in their individual schools.

When teachers discussed their instructional approaches, their eyes were opened to the differing philosophies and approaches of their colleagues in other schools and to the need to develop common understandings within and across the schools in the district. Two levels of cross-grade level collaboration emerged: within the schools and within the district. Time was set aside at each meeting for the teachers to talk with these groups, sharing ideas and resources and providing support. Out of this time, community was built among the teachers that facilitated the collaborative process.

School representatives brought back ideas from the professional development meetings to their colleagues, and conversations regarding ways to improve the articulation and connection of curriculum across the school were initiated. Teachers who were once unaware of what their colleagues were doing in classrooms down the hall concerning literacy instruction began to teach with their “doors open”, deprivatizing their classroom practices and engaging in collaborative conversations regarding students and instruction.

After a few months of meetings, teachers began sharing in the sessions about the profound changes in their schools. In one school, teachers had formed a study group to examine how they could implement writing workshops across the grade levels. Another school implemented a Family Literacy Night as a result of the leadership of the teacher representatives. Teacher-led professional development sessions were initiated and led to collegial relationships and conversations surrounding best practice instruction in the schools.

This case study is an example of the positive effects cross-grade level collaboration can have within a school and district. When this group of teachers deprivatized their practices, engaged in reflection as a group, and collaborated around shared goals centered in student learning, positive changes occurred.

6.2 Application Case Study

In one school district, teachers meet on a weekly basis in cross-grade level teams to discuss the supports being provided to students on IEPs. In the meeting, teachers use multiple data sources to reflect on student successes, growth, and challenges. The goal of the meetings is to provide appropriate supports to students, adjusting each week based on evaluation of assessment results. Each teacher is responsible for coming prepared to the meeting with information about student progress in both academic and nonacademic arenas. Group participation includes equal input from each member concerning student support in the area of classroom management, pedagogical and learning strategies. Teachers from across grade levels come together in these teams to support the success of individual students.

Divide into small groups based on early childhood, elementary, middle school, and high school interests. In these small groups, discuss the following questions the teacher teams described earlier might face:

  1. What steps do the teams need to take to insure each member is responsible for his or her role and has his or her voice heard in the meetings?
  2. How do the essential components for cross-grade level collaboration discussed in this chapter relate to the work of these teams?
  3. List several topics that may be relevant to these teams at each grade-band level. What will be pertinent concerns for each developmental level?

Now, form new small groups with one representative from each grade level. Share the major points you discussed in your grade-band group with this new group. Identify any common themes in the groups to create a set of guiding principles for cross-grade level teams to consider in their work. Share these with the whole class.

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Chapter 7: Overcoming Barriers to Collaboration

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

  1. Identify various barriers to collaboration and consultation
  2. Cite examples of conceptual, attitudinal, professional, and pragmatic barriers
  3. Cite examples of how each of the types of barriers might be overcome

Barriers to Collaboration and Consultation

Conceptual Barriers

Schools and individuals develop their own concepts about how schools and teachers operate and the roles of teachers, professionals, families, and students. Development of new collaboration and consultation skills often takes time and substantial changes in people’s roles and how the school operates to develop and improve. Being involved in collaborative teaming may very well require those involved to change attitudes about their roles and the school culture. Change often breeds anxiety, particularly when the change requires development of new knowledge and skill sets.

Attitudinal Barriers

Attitudinal barriers should not be construed automatically to mean an individual must possess a “bad” attitude. Rather, consider that one’s attitudes about oneself, others in the work environment and community, and the expected roles of various professionals and community members are shaped by years of practice, experience, and the school culture.

Pragmatic Barriers

Pragmatic barriers are often logistical in nature and significantly impact formal, planned collaboration and consultation processes. Scheduling time for planning is typically a challenge as well as the competing responsibilities of those involved.

Professional Barriers

Professional barriers are not entirely separate from the conceptual and particularly attitudinal barriers discussed earlier. Professional barriers, for our purposes, include those barriers presented by one’s professional education and training, licensure, and specified professional roles often understood through years of practice in a particular school or district.

Comprehension Check

  1. Provide examples of attitudinal barriers.
  2. Provide examples of conceptual barriers.
  3. Provide examples of professional barriers.
  4. Provide examples of pragmatic barriers.

Overcoming Barriers to Collaboration and Consultation

Using Professional Development Learning Communities to Overcome Conceptual and Attitudinal Barriers

As discussed in chapter 6, there is not universal agreement on what Professional Development Learning Communities (PLC) are, how they should be formed, or how they should be sustained.

There are many different models of PLCs, which may work better in some districts than others.

Pre-service Teacher Preparation to Overcome Professional Barriers

PLCs are certainly one model for developing collaboration skills that assist pre-service teachers to overcome professional barriers such as their specific licensure area. PLCs are often cited as one of the better methods for overcoming such areas among practicing teachers.

It would appear good leaders engage in five actions that serve as catalysts for building and supporting collaborative work among teachers:

Leadership Strategies for Overcoming Logistical Barriers

Leadership strategies can come in at least two ways. One is to support the development and maintenance of collaborative team processes. The second is to remove logistical barriers that prevent or impede that development and maintenance.

  1. Critical analysis of the initial state of affairs and ongoing analysis
  2. Advocacy for collaboration personally and to internal and external constituencies
  3. Leaders obtain, leverage, and allocate resources to support collaboration
  4. Leaders actively work at facilitating collaboration
  5. Leaders monitor the progress of collaborative teams

Comprehension Check

  1. What are the possible functions of various PLCs?
  2. Discuss at least one model for a PLC.
  3. Identify strategies/activities to encourage development of collaboration skills in pre-service teachers.
  4. What are the five actions leaders may take to develop and support collaborative teams?

Case Studies

7.1 Illustrative Case Study

Ms. Woodward and Ms. Henry are teachers at Majestic Middle School. Ms. Woodward has been teaching seventh grade English Language Arts for 13 years. Ms. Henry is in her second year working as a special education teacher. Both are assigned to the same seventh grade level team for planning, instruction, assessment, and support. They both work on a team with other seventh grade teachers who serve the same group of students.

Initially, Ms. Henry was enthusiastic about working with the general education teachers on the team. However, after the first two team meetings, she was feeling somewhat dismayed. First, two general education teachers stated that Ms. Henry was the resource room teacher and wanted to know when she was planning to serve the IEP students in their classes. When Ms. Henry suggested the possibility of co-teaching, the two teachers remarked, “We’ve always sent our students to the resource room. Why should we change?”

Second, when Ms. Henry asked if anyone was interested in co-teaching or another method of delivering services aside from the resource room, she was answered with, “Those students need their time with you. You are the one best trained to handle their issues. Besides, we’re not certified to work with students on IEPs.”

Finally, Ms. Woodward expressed she would be interested in co-teaching. She explained that while she was not a trained special education teacher, she believed she had learned many useful strategies to help students on IEPs and all learners in her classes. She also stated that she always felt that when her students were sent to the resource room in the past, the students were missing out on the learning occurring in her general education class. She stated, “I think two heads are better than one in planning and teaching.”

Later, Ms. Woodward and Ms. Henry met with the school principal to ask for her support and to ensure they had mutual time for planning. The school principal liked their ideas so much, she decided to encourage all the grade-level teams to move toward co-teaching models.

7.2 Application Case Study

Ms. Farnbach is a principal at Carlie Middle School. She has recently become concerned that the collaboration teams in her school have not been working well. These teams were organized by teaching content areas and each had a special educator assigned to the team consisting of general education teachers in math, science, social studies, or language arts. Ms. Farnbach is beginning to rethink if organizing collaborative teams by content area was such a good idea. In the spring, she wants to begin planning for a reorganization of her teams. She wants there to be more school-wide collaboration across teaching content areas.

  1. Decide who Ms. Farnbach might include on her own leadership team to reorganize the collaboration teams.
  2. Brainstorm some possible ways in which collaborative teams might be reorganized to support her wishes for there to be more school-wide collaboration across teaching areas.
  3. Write a specific mission or goal for the collaborative teams to achieve once reorganized.
  4. Write down three ways in which Ms. Farnbach can demonstrate support for collaborative teams in the school.
  5. Write down three possible barriers to the success of reorganized teams.

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Chapter 8: Co-teaching Models

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

  1. Discuss the rationale for co-teaching
  2. Describe the characteristics of co-teaching
  3. Describe the six co-teaching models
  4. Apply the co-teaching models to practical examples
  5. List the conditions necessary for successful co-teaching partnerships

Why Co-teaching?

Co-teaching can be successfully implemented with students with mild to severe disabilities and with young children, as well as students at the secondary level.

Co-teaching allows the meshing of the unique knowledge and skills each teacher can bring to the classroom.

Co-teaching requires that teachers plan to use their classroom space to best meet the needs of all students and to work collaboratively to plan lessons, use materials, and monitor student progress.

Co-teaching is generally defined as two educators sharing space and materials to collaboratively plan and provide instruction to a group of diverse students.


The characteristics of co-teaching are:

Two professionals
Diverse student populations
Jointly delivering instruction
Sharing classroom space

Comprehension Check

  1. Define co-teaching.
  2. What are the defining characteristics of co-teaching?
  3. What do teachers need in order to engage effectively in co-teaching?

Six Co-teaching Models

One Teach, One Observe

In the one teach, one observe model, one teacher teaches and the other observes during instructional times.

The observing teacher may be gathering data on the performance or behavior of a particular student.

The teachers can switch these roles as needed.

One Teach, One Drift

The drifting co-teacher may move about the classroom, manage student behavior, observe students work, and provide assistance to students as needed.

Co-teachers share the same space and students, but they also share more in classroom management responsibilities than in the one teach, one observe model.

Station Teaching

The station teaching model involves the co-teachers planning and instructing a portion of the lesson content in stations through which the students move.

Parallel Teaching

The parallel teaching model involves each co-teacher planning and instructing students on the same material.

Each teacher presents information to a smaller heterogeneous group of students in the class.

The smaller teacher-student ratio created by two learning groups allows for greater discussion, interaction, and closer supervision.

Alternative Teaching

The alternative teaching model involves each co-teacher planning and instructing the students. In this model, each teaches a separate heterogeneous group of students.

While one co-teacher works with a group for a specific purpose, the other co-teacher works with the remainder of the class.

Team Teaching

In team teaching, co-teachers take equal responsibility for all aspects of the classroom: management, planning, preparing materials, delivering instruction, and assessing student learning outcomes.

This model is the most collaborative.

Comprehension Check

  1. What are the six models for co-teaching?
  2. What are the advantages and disadvantages for each model?
  3. Describe appropriate applications of each model.

Conditions for Successful Co-teaching

Administrative Support

A primary need identified by teachers who engage in co-teaching includes the importance of support from school administration for the partnership.

Administrator support for co-teaching can come in many forms, from the initial introduction of the concept to the team, to the provision and participation in professional development to develop co-teaching skills.

Professional Development

Implementing co-teaching effectively involves a deep knowledge of the multiple factors involved in co-teaching, including an understanding of the models it can take on in classrooms.

Successful co-teaching depends upon an in-depth understanding of the process and a willingness to continue to learn about how to engage in it successfully.

Collaborative Planning Time

Collaborative planning time is critical for successful co-teaching.

Co-teachers can use collaborative planning time in a variety of ways, and the more well-developed the co-teaching relationship is, the more fluid the use of this time becomes.

Willingness

Co-teaching will only be successful as a partnership if the participants are willing and self-motivated to engage in the practice.

The first and most important component of co-teaching involves this willingness to participate in a practice that will initially push a teacher beyond the comfort zone and provide challenges, but with significant payoff for both teaching and learning.

Equity of Roles

When teachers think about how to share instructional roles, three components remain constant: joint planning, joint instruction, and joint evaluation.

Responsibility for student learning through lesson planning and assessment should be equitably shared between both teachers.

Case Studies

8.1 Application Case Study

Feeling the pressure of state and federal mandates to insure all students were successful on standardized tests, as well as preparation for college and career beyond the classroom, the Northfield School District decided to implement co-teaching at multiple levels throughout the district. After carefully examining student performance results on state tests, the staff learned that students with disabilities were performing significantly lower than their regular education peers and demonstrating significant deficits over time. Students with disabilities were failing to make Adequate Yearly Progress at the same rate as their peers who participated in the regular education environment.

After much discussion among the staff, co-teaching was identified as a method that held the potential to positively impact the learning of students with disabilities. The district staff knew they needed to meet the specific needs of students with disabilities in a setting that supported these needs, using highly skilled instructors to deliver specific, rigorous instruction. They also wanted to provide an environment that was supportive to the development of positive identities and self-esteem for all students.

Once co-teaching was identified as model to implement, administrators contacted a local university to provide professional development in the form of in-service trainings to all teachers interested and willing to engage in co-teaching. Teachers were specifically invited to attend the training by administrators who saw them as someone with the skills, disposition, and expertise to engage in co-teaching. Volunteer co-teaching teams were formed at all levels (elementary, middle, and high school).

Collaborative planning time was arranged for the co-teaching teams, including supported summer planning time and time during the school week for the teams to engage in ongoing planning. Professional development was also provided throughout the year to support individual teams of co-teachers as they developed a professional relationship in the classroom.

Co-teaching teams engaged in multiple forms of co-teaching, making decisions about which model to use based on their grade levels, teaching backgrounds, and student needs. Drawing on the knowledge they gained regarding co-teaching during the professional development sessions and the ongoing planning and support they received throughout the year, they adjusted the models of co-teaching they applied until they found the mix of models that worked for the teachers and the students.

At the end of the first year of implementation, the co-teaching teams reflected on the process of co-teaching, identifying factors that went well and factors that were in need of change for the following year. Initial data from the first of student assessments indicated that students with disabilities were increasing their performance on key measures and were engaged with regular education curriculum. Plans for continuing to refine the co-teaching process, adding to the amount of teams, and monitoring student progress are in place, and Northfield School District is off and running with co-teaching (Magiera & Simmons, 2005).

8.2 Application Case Study

One of the co-teaching teams within Northfield School District at the middle school level, who was not a part of the initial year of implementation, began their co-teaching relationship with excitement and trepidation. Ms. Dooley and Mr. Nugent both had several years of teaching experience and had been in the district for their entire teaching careers. Ms. Dooley was the content teacher, specializing in math and science. Mr. Nugent was the special educator, and he had been teaching reading intervention in a resource room prior to the co-teaching partnership.

The two teachers experienced a number of successes during their first year as co-teachers, but they also faced several challenges. Since they had not been a part of the initial year of implementation in the district, they were missing the initial push of support and enthusiasm and often felt they were navigating the waters of co-teaching on their own. Specifically, the challenges they faced included:

  • Collaborative Planning. Although specific time for co-planning had been set aside by the district, the teachers found it often overtaken by distractions. For example, Ms. Dooley was a part of a district curriculum committee and was often called away for meetings during the co-planning time for this meeting. As this continued to occur, Mr. Nugent began to use the co-planning time to meet with parents or hold IEP meetings, as he did not want to waste the free block of time in the day. Slowly, the co-planning time was not prioritized by either teacher and tension arose between them over the best use of this time.
  • Equity of Roles. Both Ms. Dooley and Mr. Nugent brought different teaching styles to the partnership, and they struggled to reconcile these differences at times. Although the coaches they had from the local university as a part of their professional development plan helped them to see each other’s styles as strengths and as a way to provide differentiated instruction to students, they often disagreed over the best way to meet a particular student’s needs or to communicate challenging content. Without the weekly planning time to discuss these issues as a reliable event, tension continued to build over how to reconcile different teaching styles to support student learning.

In small groups, discuss the dilemma for Ms. Dooley and Mr. Nugent. Imagine that you are a colleague in the building who has built a successful co-teaching partnership during the previous school year.

  1. What advice would you give the co-teachers regarding how to prioritize the co-planning time allocated to them?
  2. How would you suggest they reconcile the differences in their teaching style to maximize student learning?
  3. Which model of co-teaching do you think Ms. Dooley and Mr. Nugent might be most successful applying at this point? Why?

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Chapter 9: Other Models of Collaboration

Outline

Chapter Objectives:
  1. Describe the transdisciplinary model of consultation
  2. Describe how this model relates to multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary models of consultation
  3. List the practices involved in consultation
  4. Identify key principles of consultation

Consultation

Collaboration can take many forms; sometimes co-teaching is just not a feasible option or is not necessary.

Consultation, as it relates to teaming, involves key stakeholders in a child’s education coming together to communicate, collaborate, and coordinate services to meet a student’s unique needs.

There are six steps to consultation:

The first step of consultation is entry
The second step of consultation is problem identification
The third step of consultation is planning
The fourth step of consultation is intervention
The fifth step of consultation is evaluation
The sixth step of consultation is exit

There are six elements to consultation:

System–The team that is serving the student and the multiple ways in which the student is educated.
Perspective–Thoughts or viewpoints influencing how the team operates.
Approach–The steps taken in order to work collaboratively in order to meet a student’s needs.
Prototype–The pattern according to which the consultation occurs.
Mode–The manner in which the collaboration occurs.
Model–A representation of the working collaborative process.

Comprehension Check

  1. List the six elements of collaborative consultation.
  2. Define the collaborative consultation model.
  3. Compare and contrast an informal team approach and a formal team approach.

Models of Collaboration

Multidisciplinary–Teams are loosely formed groups of professionals who consult with one another on the educational needs of a student.

This model of collaboration aligns with a medical, pull-out model of instruction, as teams do not function as a unit to support a student in the least restrictive environment.

Assessment is done in isolation and results are not automatically shared with others who work with the students.

Interdisciplinary–Teams follow a similar structure to the multidisciplinary teams, but there is a higher degree of collaboration and communication on the part of the team members.

These teams meet more frequently than multidisciplinary teams to discuss student progress and coordinate instruction. Interaction between team members occurs within the meetings, but not in the delivery of service.

Transdisciplinary–There is a “collective responsibility for the creation and implementation of the educational and therapeutic plan. No individual is solely responsible for the progress and development in any particular skill area” (Hernandez, 2013, p. 485).

There are three phases in bringing a transdisciplinary team together:

  • Organizing the team
  • Facilitating the team process
  • The team is developed and implemented in the school to serve students

Due to the high degree of collaboration and communication that occurs, the following components must be considered.

  • Regular Meeting Schedule
  • Inclusive
  • Efficient Goal Development
  • Trust and Communication
  • Administrative Support
  • Role Release
  • Arena Assessment

Comprehension Check

  1. Describe the three models of collaboration discussed in this section.
  2. Discuss the three phases involved in forming a transdisciplinary team.
  3. List the components of a transdisciplinary team.
Team Member Roles

Family Members–Family members are the most important members of the team, as they know the child and his or her background best.

Educator–A team will of course include both general and special educators who are responsible for providing instruction on a daily basis to the student.

Therapists–Therapists, such as the speech-language pathologist, physical therapist, or occupational therapist will be members of the school team, depending on the needs of the child.

Medical Personnel and Other Professionals–Medical personnel, mental health professionals, tutors, or other professionals relevant to the needs of the child might also be included on a team.

Comprehension Check

  1. What are the considerations in inviting people to be members of a collaborative team?
  2. What are the benefits to inviting other service providers to be a part of a collaborative team?
  3. What are some of the roles other service providers might take on within a collaborative team?

Case Studies

9.1 Illustrative Case Study

Southtown Elementary School is a preschool through fifth grade building. The school’s philosophy has encouraged an inclusive, multi-age curriculum that has led to teaming by all staff.

One team includes two general education teachers and one assistant teacher, who have been part of the team for three years. This year, an ELL teacher, a reading specialist, and a special education teacher have also joined the team.

This team serves the kindergarten and first grade classrooms. There are forty students across two classrooms at this grade level, and the team is intended to support the needs of all of these students. All members of the team provide instruction to the students, with the specialists providing instruction to the students whose needs match their area of expertise.

One distinguishing factor of this team is the fluidity of the roles of each team member. For example, the school includes a high percentage of ELL students, so the ELL teacher would have a large caseload of students if left on her own. However, since the needs of the students expand beyond their language needs and can include areas in reading or learning disabilities, the special education teacher and the reading specialist will sometimes serve the ELL students as well.

The team will often divide students into small groups, with each teacher taking responsibility for one of the groups. The groups are heterogeneous and dynamic, meaning that their membership changes based on the lesson being taught, the skills required, and recent assessment data.

The team engages in co-planning two times a week in order to facilitate these fluid, flexible dynamics. The school schedule has been designed to support this co-planning time within the school day for the team members. This also allows the team to invite other specialists to consult on specific student needs as needed. Depending on the year, if there is a student with specific needs requiring a specialist, that person would be included in all aspects team planning and teaching, as appropriate for the situation.

The entire school is organized into teams, so a philosophy of collaboration pervades the school environment. To this end, teams are often fluid across the school. A student’s specific needs drive the membership of the team. In addition, colleagues from different teams are often heard in the workroom discussing particular students and their specific needs.

On the kindergarten/first grade team, one consultant the team frequently employs is a dyslexia specialist. This teacher has received advanced training in multisensory teaching methods and is able to observe students, provide short-term remediation within the classroom, and make a recommendation for further testing for dyslexia. This teacher “floats” around the school, providing consultative services across grade levels, moving in and out of teams as necessary.

9.2 Application Case Study

Brandon is a sixth grade student who has multiple disabilities. Brandon has cerebral palsy and uses a walker. Brandon is also cognitively delayed, with an IQ of 62. A speech impediment is also a disability for which Brandon receives support. Brandon is being raised by his grandmother and has no brothers or sisters. As a young child, a family crisis caused him to move with his grandmother, away from his mother, to a new city.

The least restrictive environment in which Brandon is educated is a self-contained special education classroom for most of the day. Brandon participates in inclusion in “specials” classes, including art, music, physical education, and home economics. Sixth grade is the first year of middle school for Brandon, meaning he is transitioning to a new building within the district. The transition to the new building also involves a reexamination of the composition of the collaborative team that supports Brandon.

Form small groups within the class and discuss who you would consider inviting to be a part of the collaborative team to support Brandon’s transition to middle school. Consider the following questions as you discuss the team:

  1. Who would be the critical members of the team to support Brandon?
  2. What roles would team members need to play to most effectively support Brandon’s educational progress?
  3. What other considerations does Brandon’s case present to a collaborative team?

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Chapter 10: Related Service Providers

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading this chapter, students should:

  1. Explain how the need for related services is determined
  2. List several related service providers
  3. Describe the roles of related service providers in schools
  4. Discuss how related service providers work with school teams to provide services to students

Related Services Determination

Related services are needed supports, both academic and nonacademic, to most effectively serve students with a free and appropriate education.

Supports could include things such as speech and language services, occupational therapy, or counseling for a student or family in crisis.

Determining if a student qualifies for related services is done during the eligibility assessments for special education.

During this assessment process, a student should be evaluated on all areas of her or his suspected disability.

If a student qualifies for related services, the services are specified on their IEP or 504 Plan.

Related Services Personnel

Speech-Language Pathologists

Speech-language pathologists (SLP) provide critical services to students with communication disorders.

A speech-language disorder could be the primary disability for a student, or it may be related to another disability category.

SLPs provide support for communication and swallowing problems, such as articulation issues, including how sounds are pronounced and put together to form words.

The role of the SLP on the IEP team will change with the degree to which speech and language impairment is affecting the student as compared to other disabilities. If speech and language impairments are the primary disability, the SLP will be a primary member of the team. When speech and language impairments are a secondary disability, then the SLP must work effectively with the team to develop an IEP.

Comprehension Check

  1. When are speech and language impairments considered a disability category versus a related service?
  2. Name the services a speech pathologist could potentially provide for a student.
  3. Describe a speech pathologist’s role as assessor, team member, and intervention provider.
Occupational Therapist

An occupational therapist (OT) specializes in assisting students in performing activities of daily living (ADL) in both academic and nonacademic areas.

OTs analyze the school environment and recommend and/or provide the supports and modifications to help students overcome barriers and fully participate in all aspects of the school day.

OTs may work one-on-one with students, support post high school, and address other sensory, motor, or cognitive needs

OTs collaborate with team members to recommend instructional strategies and interventions to increase student participation. They may work with school personnel on ways to adapt the school environment to make it more accessible for all students.

Physical Therapy

Physical therapy focuses on improving a student’s posture, movement, and muscle strength. This therapy is provided to students with deficits in gross motor skills.

PTs and PTAs may work one-on-one with students on a variety of skills that help develop posture, muscle strength, and mobility, such as running, walking, skipping, throwing a ball or climbing.

PTs and PTAs may collaborate with teachers on developing seating arrangements for the classroom or recommend strategies and supports that facilitate posture.

Psychological Services
Psychological services are designed to promote the mental health and behavioral well-being of students.

Psychological services can be provided by a school psychologist or other qualified professional, such as school counselors or social workers.

School psychologists work with students to provide counseling and behavioral supports. They may work one-on-one or in small groups with students who have difficulties with social skills, behavior management, or developing relationships with teachers or peers.

Academically, they may assist students in developing appropriate study skills like time management or organization and facilitate academic interventions.

School psychologists also assess individual students to determine their strengths and areas of need, especially for eligibility purposes.

Social Work Services

School social workers use their knowledge in child development and family dynamics to address social and psychological concerns.

In working with individual students or small groups, school social workers provide counseling, intervention, and support services to help students cope with stressful situations, crisis, and/or family troubles.

School social workers can help the team better understand family and community factors that affect a student’s performance in school. They may provide the link between schools, families, and community resources.

Assistive Technology

Assistive technology (AT) is a service that enables a student to communicate and participate fully in the school day.

Commonly used devices include computers, access systems, and specialized software.

AT devices are provided to students based on the content of their IEP goals.

Audiology Services

A school audiologist helps a student with hearing loss or an auditory processing disorder to navigate curriculum.

An audiologist may fit and maintain technology; provide in-service training; provide guidance to support personnel, teachers, and families; participate in IEP meetings; diagnose or assess hearing loss and auditory processing disorders; implement hearing loss prevention programs; assess students’ functional classroom performance; conduct a hearing screening; and assess classroom acoustics for students who have hearing disorders

Counseling Services

School counselors work with all students, including those with disabilities.

School counselors work with a student in counseling to address issues that interfere with his or her educational success, including anxiety and depression-related concerns. Counselors communicate with families and other agencies, as well as assist general educators in inclusive settings with issues related to behavior and classroom management.

Early Identification and Assessment of Disabilities

Early identification and assessment is an important related service provided to help identify disabilities as early as possible.

A lack of swift assessment and intervention can result in academic challenges later in life.

Interpreting Services

Oral language, cued language, or sign language transliteration services, and transcription services are all included under interpretation services.

Medical Services

Medical services are provided by a licensed physician to determine a child’s medically related disability and the need for special education.

Medical treatment and intervention is not included in a school service plan, thus medical services qualify as a related service when used for diagnostic or evaluation purposes only.

Orientation and Mobility Services

Student who are blind or have low vision will access orientation and mobility services to help them navigate the school and classroom environment.

Parent Counseling and Training

This related service is geared toward assisting parents to better understand the special needs of their child and to assist them with information that can help their child be more successful in academic and other environments.

A wide variety of professionals, such as special education teachers, therapists, or behavior specialists, may provide this service depending on the specific areas of need.

Recreation Services

Therapeutic recreation involves the use of sports, games, arts and crafts, music, dance, drama, and nontraditional recreational activities to improve or maintain the physical, mental, and emotional well-being of students who receive special education services.

Rehabilitation Counseling Services

Vocational rehabilitation services focus on career development and preparing students for employment, independence, and integration into school, work, or community groups.

School Health Services

School health and nursing services can be a critical related service for some students who have medical conditions.

Such services might include medication administration and ensuring that students with disabilities have a written emergency plan for such things as medical emergencies and nonmedical emergencies.

Transportation Services

How a student with a disability travels to and from school as well as in and around school buildings is crucial to successful participation in the curriculum and activities of the day.

Comprehension Check

  1. Decisions regarding other related service providers to consult with will be based on what factors?
  2. What sort of services are audiologists trained to provide?
  3. Describe the function of a school counselor.

Case Studies

10.1 Illustrative Case Study

Courtney is an eight-year-old child who was born with cerebral palsy that affects both her gross and fine motor functioning. Courtney has received special education services since shortly after birth, first through her community early intervention agency and later through her public school district. While she has made improvements in her fine and gross muscle ability, her PT and OT are vital members of her collaborative IEP team.

While Courtney is mobile, she walks with the aid of a walker. Her PT, Pat McKinley, works with her one-on-one to improve her flexibility and coordination through the use of exercises and stretches. Courtney’s teacher collaborated with Pat on the optimal room arrangement for Courtney to maneuver her walker and build her muscle tone. Pat has also taught Courtney’s teacher stretches Courtney and the rest of the class can do daily to enhance the muscle tone of the entire class. Pat also ensured that Courtney’s teachers and the school nurse were trained on the appropriate way to assist Courtney in using her walker and developing an evacuation plan in case of an emergency.

Courtney’s OT is Scott Wilson. Scott’s main occupational goals for Courtney include object manipulation and hand-eye coordination. Together, Scott and Courtney work on dexterity such as grasping objects, handwriting, and holding books and other supplies. Scott worked with Courtney’s teacher to ensure she had the appropriate and needed supports and proper accommodations, adaptive materials, and assisted technology to help Courtney in accessing the curriculum and to be fully included in the school environment.

Besides providing regular updates on Courtney’s progress, Pat and Scott consult and provide support to both her teachers and her parents. They work collaboratively with the team and Courtney’s parents to develop the goals and provide the therapy that will allow Courtney to be as independent and successful as possible.

10.2 Application Case Study

Thomas is a new student in the third grade at Fairhaven Elementary School. He has recently moved into the area with his family, which includes one older sister and two younger brothers. Thomas’s father is a car salesman, and his mother is a seamstress. Thomas was on an IEP in his former school for autism and speech-language impairments. Past records indicate he performs adequately in most areas at grade level, but he struggles with comprehension of text. He is able to use speech in a fluent manner but is not always socially appropriate.

The IEP team gathers at the beginning of the year to evaluate Thomas’s current IEP goals and make plans for the delivery of services at the school. Initially, the IEP team includes the classroom teacher, the parents, and the speech-language pathologist. After the first meeting, however, the team decides to add several related service professionals to the team. One of those professionals is a recreational therapist, to address concerns that Thomas has difficulties participating in after school activities such as Boy Scouts and Lego League due to his social language delays. Thomas’s parents expressed concern that Thomas had not been allowed to participate in these activities at his old school, and the team at Fairhaven wanted to address this right away.

Another service professional who was invited to consult with the team was the school counselor. Thomas’s delayed social skills have caused concern that he may also be developing social anxiety and early signs of depression as a result of not being included in social activities.
Finally, the team discussed options for educating Thomas’s parents on autism and community-based options available to them, such as respite care, since they are new to the community.

While in the meeting, Thomas’s parents displayed signs of stress and worry about the influence of Thomas’s disability on their other children and on their family life. With two jobs and three other children, Thomas’s needs were beginning to detract from the strong family unit they desire. A respite coordinator will be invited to the next meeting, and the counselor offered to bring information on support groups and other community resources.

  1. What questions will you have for the rest of the IEP team?
  2. What step has the team missed in the process of inviting the other service personnel to the meeting?
  3. Discuss what one of Thomas’s IEP goals should be, specifically related to his social skills. How would this goal then be monitored throughout the school year?

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Chapter 11: Student Collaboration

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading of this chapter, students should:

  1. Provide a rationale for student collaboration
  2. Discuss the differences between cooperative learning and collaborative learning
  3. List the eight key principles for student collaboration
  4. Describe several models for student collaboration

Student Collaboration

Learning within a social context is different from learning independently, thus special consideration needs to be given to the design of collaborative learning tasks in an inclusive classroom.

Collaborative learning has been shown to have a positive effect on student learning over individual, competitive situations and can meet more learning style needs within a classroom than direct instruction.

Interpersonal skills that are critical for later personal and professional success can be learned through collaborative learning.

Peer scaffolding–Students develop a shared or intersubjective understanding of the situation and have the opportunity to teach each other, taking on some of the instructional responsibilities of the teacher.

Comprehension Check

  1. List two benefits to collaborative learning for students in inclusive settings.
  2. Why is collaborative learning an essential skill for today’s students?
  3. What is the role of the teacher in collaborative learning experiences?

Cooperative Learning versus Collaborative Learning

Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning is widely employed in K–12 classrooms.

Cooperative learning includes any form of instruction in which students are working together for a purpose; successful cooperative learning in a classroom requires more than just placing students in a group and letting them work at a task together. Mutual interdependence, collective problem solving, and striving for a common goal are characteristics that mark a group activity as cooperative learning.

The role of the instructor in cooperative learning is to provide structure for the learning experience, monitor the group process and provide feedback, and assess the final outcome according to a set of criteria.

Collaborative Learning

Collaborative learning is an evolution of cooperative learning.

In collaborative learning, the social development of the group is a priority. There is an increased emphasis on sharing outcomes with others and the social constructive nature of learning.

Collaborative learning helps students to prepare for the world of college and career in which they will be accountable for their own responsibilities, but must also work in conjunction with others to achieve their goals.

Collaborative group work includes independent assignments and accountability that are completed in consultation with other students working on a similar task or goal.

Comprehension Check

  1. List two similarities between cooperative and collaborative learning.
  2. List two differences between cooperative and collaborative learning.
  3. What are the considerations in choosing which approach to implement in the classroom?

Principles of Student Collaboration

Size

More is not always better when it comes to collaboration at any level. When forming collaborative groups of students, three to four members is ideal for an effective process.

Composition

Collaborative groups can be formed randomly, numbering students off in a fixed pattern to produce a group of mixed ability, styles, and goals. Groups can also be formed according to similar abilities, goals, or learning styles.

Roles

For a group to be collaborative, roles should be more fluid and dynamically taken on by members based on the needs of the group. However, particularly when working with young students or students of varying abilities, defining roles within a group should be a decision a teacher makes as the lesson is planned.

Interdependence–is an important component to collaborative groups, and it requires students to become reliant on one another in order to be productive and successful in achieving a common goal.

Norms

For any group to function effectively, it is important to establish norms that will govern the interactions of the group. In a collaborative group within a classroom, this might include respecting one another, allowing every person a turn to talk, taking turns completing tasks, etc.

Time and Task

In a classroom, teachers need to set forth some guidelines concerning the amount of time groups will have to meet and work, as well as how the task will be evaluated and defined.

Classroom Context

No classroom is just like another, and the tangible and intangible differences in classroom contexts influence the instructional activities that occur. This can include the space and resources that are utilized in and outside of the classroom, or the investment of the teacher in scaffolding and preparing students to engage in collaboration.

Assessment

Decisions about assessment of collaborative work should be made based on the goals of the learning activity and the collaborative experiences and skills of the group members.

Role of the Teacher

The teacher in a collaborative classroom really becomes the “lead learner”, rather than the teacher.

The role of facilitator becomes important and critical as students learn to take on the norms and habits of working collaboratively.

Comprehension Check

  1. List the eight characteristics of collaborative learning.
  2. What is an ideal size for a collaborative group?
  3. Discuss the tangible and intangible differences in classroom contexts. What is the role of the teacher in creating a collaborative classroom context?

Models of Student Collaboration

Peer Learning

In peer learning, collaborative groups can be formed for the specific purpose of peers taking on the role of the teacher. Groups should be flexible and driven toward clarifying or extending content taught in the class.

Cross-Grade Level

Implementation of cross-grade level collaboration is largely dependent on the context of the school. Students who are asked to engage in cross-grade level collaboration should have some preparation for the norms of collaborative learning.

Jigsaw

Students have opportunities to work in multiple levels of collaborative groups surrounding an area of study. Students group together and become “experts” in one specific area of the overall topic. After becoming “experts” in this area, new groups are formed with other “experts” in other areas. The different “experts”, now grouped together, then teach each other their content areas.

Inquiry Groups

Inquiry groups are collaborative groups formed to explore an area of interest. Inquiry groups represent a significant shift in the collaborative process, as they involve less structure from the teacher and more latitude in the direction of the learning on the part of the students.

Project-Based Learning

Project-based learning, also called problem-based learning, places students in heterogeneous, collaborative groups to work on an authentic problem or project. Students take on significantly more control of the learning process within the group than in the previous models.

Web 2.0

The proliferation of interactive technologies available via the Internet has revolutionized opportunities for student collaboration. Social media, interactive Internet sites, wikis, and online software programs have opened space within classrooms for students to collaborate within and beyond their classroom doors in innovative, and seemingly endless, ways.

Comprehension Check

  1. List the benefits of working with peers.
  2. Describe how a jigsaw model works.
  3. What are some benefits and advantages of using social media in collaborative learning?

Case Studies

11.1 Illustrative Case Study

Mr. Thursby is spending his planning period wrestling with the upcoming unit he will be teaching on the environment to his seventh grade science class. Reviewing the chapter in the science textbook reminded him of the multiple layers of content he will need to cover within this one unit. Mr. Thursby decides to set up a meeting with Mrs. Mason, the sixth grade science teacher, to discuss the unit. He also hopes that she can shed some light on what the students learned about the environment during the previous school year so that he can be sure to plan his content to build on what the students already know. “There is so much content here and a lot of important issues to discuss,” he shares, “I just want to help them take the information and apply it to their own lives.”

Mrs. Mason suggests he design a cooperative learning activity for the students to engage in the content. She suggests he divide the chapter up into manageable sections and ask the students to work together to research each area and share it with the class through an oral presentation. Mr. Thursby likes the cooperative element to this activity, but he would like to provide the students with a more authentic way to apply the content to their own lives.

Back in his classroom, Mr. Thursby reads several news articles about environmental issues affecting the local community. Reading these important pieces, he recognizes the need for his students to be able to connect what they are learning about in science class with these community-related issues.

The final unit becomes a collaborative one in which students work together to not only research an issue, but to make an applicable connection to the community issues affecting their lives. Students not only work together to learn about an issue, but they also collaborate to provide new knowledge and experiences to make their community a better place to live.

11.2 Application Case Study

Which model is best? In the following examples, select the best model to match the vignette.

  1. As part of a unit on the Civil War, sixth grade students are asked to read a nonfiction article about the role women played in the war. The article is quite lengthy and contains many text features and structures.
  2. Fourth grade students are working to improve their oral reading fluency, specifically their ability to read with expression. They are expected to read several short texts aloud with expression to practice this skill.
  3. Fifth grade students are studying fractions in a math unit. The math class is generally grouped by ability, but every Friday the groups come together to explore the new concept together.
  4. As part of a unit on citizenship and government, students express interest in learning more about key aspects of government. Interests vary across the class, but can generally be grouped into several larger categories.
  5. A unit on immigration has led to big questions about immigration in today’s society, including its implications for the economy. Though the unit is over, students still would like to learn more and explore these big questions.

Name one of the models of student collaboration for each of the scenarios and justify your answer with support from the text and your experiences. Discuss your responses with a group of classmates.

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Chapter 12: Effective Interpersonal Interactions

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

  1. Determine the components of interpersonal communication
  2. Identify the steps and skills needed for active listening
  3. Understand nonverbal communication and its impact on interpersonal communication

Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is the means by which a person conveys a message to another person or group of people, no matter the setting, group, or topic.

Mediated Communication

Interpersonal communication can be mediated and facilitated through the use of an electronic device such as a computer or cell phone.

Mediated communication is invaluable to educators because of the distance and time it saves in sending and receiving messages.

Mediated communication often lacks the ability to send and receive information in current time and provide immediate feedback.

Mediated communication does not have the advantage or support of nonverbal cues in helping to decipher the emotions or importance that a person attributes to a message.

Face-to-Face Communication

Face-to-face communication is direct interpersonal communication because the communication occurs between the partners at the same time and in the same space.

Successful direct communication relies on a solid, clear command of the language and appropriate word choice.

There are two main components of direct interpersonal communications, active listening skills and nonverbal cues.

Comprehension Check

  1. What are the components of interpersonal communication?
  2. How does mediated communication differ from direct or face-to-face communication?
  3. How are time and distance both an advantage and disadvantage to mediated communication?
Active Listening Skills

Actively listening requires the receiver to hear a message, interpret it, reflect upon it, and provide feedback to the speaker in order to acknowledge or clarify the message.

Steps of the Listening Process

Active listening is a six-step process that demonstrates through words and actions that a person is focused on the speaker, open to the message, reflecting on and clarifying what is being said, able to summarize key points, and able to provide an appropriate response.

The six steps to active listening are:

  • Focus on the speaker–remain distraction free
  • Be open and receptive to the message–this does not mean the listener agrees with the message.
  • Paraphrase both the verbal and nonverbal message–this will let the other party know the listener understood the message.
  • Ask questions–this will clear up any confusion the listener may have.
  • Restate and summarize the main idea–this again does not mean the listener agrees with the message, but understands the main idea.
  • Provide a response–share any ideas, feelings, or thoughts.
Barriers to Active Listening

It can be hard for a listener to be quiet and focus rather than interrupt the speaker with his or her own thoughts and ideas or to ignore internal and external distractions.

Time is also a barrier to active listening, as it initially takes more time to engage in.

Another barrier to active listening is assuming that to be in a leadership or management role, one needs to be knowledgeable and decisive.

Active listening may be especially challenging when it involves mediated communication or is not face-to-face.

Comprehension Check

  1. What are the six steps of active listening?
  2. Why is active listening an important skill for collaboration?
  3. What are some of the barriers to employing active listening?
Nonverbal Cues and Communication

Nonverbal communication is a form of communication that does not involve words or language (except in the case of sign language) and is often the primary way humans communicate emotions, moods, sarcasm, and attitudes.

People are often unaware of their nonverbal communication and how it is perceived and interpreted by the receiver.

Nonverbal messages are more subtle and vulnerable to more subjective interpretation than verbal communication, which tends to be more direct and more easily clarified with a question or follow-up.

Nonverbal Cues

Nonverbal communication is made up of nonverbal cues, the nonlinguistic behaviors of a person that communicate information and are often used by others to form an impression.

Studies have shown that it takes as little as one-tenth of a second to use nonverbal cues to form an impression about a person based on facial appearance alone.

Visible nonverbal cues also include kinesics or how a person moves or uses the body. This can be broken down into three different types: gestures, facial expressions, and posture.

Other Considerations about Nonverbal Communication

Just like verbal cues can be misunderstood or misinterpreted, so can nonverbal cues. Nonverbal cues can lead to even more uncertainty because they are subtle, subject to interpretation, and people often are not aware of their impact. Three things to keep in mind about nonverbal cues and communication are the difference between nonverbal behaviors and nonverbal communication, the rules that guide nonverbal communication, and the cultural influences of nonverbal communication.

Comprehension Check

  1. What is nonverbal communication?
  2. How can understanding nonverbal cues be beneficial to the collaborative process?
  3. What are three things to remember about nonverbal communication?

Case Studies

12.1 Illustrative Case Study

Mrs. Anita Lincoln (Anita) is a special education teacher.

Mrs. Linda Johnson (Linda) is a student’s (Sean) parent.

Anita was sitting at her desk after school completing some paper work.

Linda bangs on the door and says, “Can I speak with you?”

Anita replies “Sure. Have a seat.” Anita turns off her monitor and turns to face Linda.

Linda: “Sean has too much homework. It takes him twice as long to complete homework as it does his friend Johnny, and he always seems to have more. It is unfair. Sean wants to go out and play, but he can’t because he spends all afternoon doing homework.”

Anita: “It sounds as if you are upset. Let me see if I have this correct. I think you are displeased because Sean has more homework than Johnny, and it takes Sean longer to complete his homework than it takes Johnny. Correct?”

Linda: “Yes, I am upset. Sean has a learning disability, so it takes him longer to do his homework. Because he is slower to complete assignments at school, teachers seem to think it is ok to send all the incomplete work home as homework. Sean ends up with more work to do than his classmates, and it takes him forever. It is not fair. How is he supposed to be able to play if all he is doing is schoolwork? I spend half my evening helping him because he cannot do it by himself. I don’t get it”

Anita “Ok. I think I understand. You think Sean has too much homework. Sean has difficulty with the homework and you help him. So both you and Sean spend a lot of time on his homework.”

Linda: “Yes, he has a lot of homework, and I have to help. But he has more homework than Johnny.”

Anita: “Do you think Sean could do the homework independently, without your assistance?”

Linda: “Well, maybe some of it, but I do not think he can do all of it.”

Anita: “Ok. What parts do you think he can do independently?”

Linda: “I guess the math. He seems to get that, except maybe with word problems. He cannot do the science, though. He cannot read the textbook. It is too hard for him to read it, so then he cannot answer the questions.”

Anita: “So he can do the math, except the word problems, but he cannot do the science, correct?”

Linda: “I know he has more homework because he has trouble completing assignments in class, and I know Johnny does complete his assignments. But it is still not fair.”

Anita: “So you are ok with the amount of math homework Sean has?”

Linda: “Yes.”

Anita: “You are concerned about the science homework, correct?”

Linda: “Yes.”

Anita: “What if we meet with Mrs. Cleveland, Sean’s science teacher, and see what we can work out? I think between the three of us we can figure out how to provide Sean more supports in science so he can complete his assignments in class. Would it help to include Sean in on the meeting?”

Linda: “Yes, I think it would be a good idea to include Sean. And thank you.”

Anita arranges a meeting for Mrs. Cleveland, Linda, Sean, and herself for tomorrow after school.

12.2 Application Case Study

Olivia is a special education teacher in an elementary school. While her students love her and her enthusiasm, her coworkers find her to be loud, boisterous, and difficult to work with. In meetings and in conversations in the hall, Olivia tends to speak loudly, often drowning out other voices or disrupting other classes. Teachers complain that they do not like co-teaching with her because she is so loud she takes over the class. Olivia is very knowledgeable and passionate about working with students but is rarely approached by other teachers for input, ideas, or to collaborate on a project.


What types of nonverbal cues is Olivia sending?

How are those cues being interpreted?

What suggestions could you give Olivia to help her become a communicator and collaborator?

Application Activities

Effective Interpersonal Interactions

  1. Have candidates watch a scene from a movie or show with the sound turned off or muted. Have candidates interpret what is going on through nonverbal cues alone. Discuss as a class what different interpretations they formed, the basis of those interpretations, and their impressions of each of the characters.
  2. Role-play different nonverbal cues. Choose a phrase such as “I am happy to see you” or “Isn’t the weather beautiful?” and in pairs see how many different ways those phrases can be said using different nonverbal cues. Have the receiver state the message that they interpret from the different approaches.
  3. Have candidates observe an IEP or other team meeting. Throughout the course of the meeting, ask candidates to document the types of nonverbal cues and/or steps of active listening they observe. Candidates can then reflect on how the nonverbal cues and/or steps of active listening impacted the interpersonal communication.

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Chapter 13: When Things Go Awry: Managing Conflict

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

  1. Identify the causes and costs of conflict among teams
  2. Identify strategies for managing conflict among teams
  3. List and explain the various steps in due process procedures

The Causes and Costs of Conflict

Effective communication skills can be instrumental in avoiding conflicts when each individual is understood, respected, and encouraged to participate in collaborative teaming.

Managing conflict, unfortunately, tends to be a skill that develops over time and with experience and practice in application of the skill.

Conflict can be useful even when it is inevitable; however, when it is not managed well, it can be quite destructive.

There can be considerable costs to unresolved conflict including:

  • It can create costs
  • It wastes time
  • It can lead to bad decisions
  • One or more members may transfer schools or move to another district
  • Leaders may have to restructure teams to avoid conflicts among members
  • Sabotage may occur
  • Team members are quite likely to lose motivation
  • Team members may miss work to avoid conflicts

Typical causes of conflicts may include:

  • Clearly articulated purposes and goals for the team have not been expressed
  • Meeting times are not realistic or meetings are cancelled or changed without sufficient notice
  • Team members may harbor long-term resentments toward one another
  • Team members’ personalities may not complement each other
  • Team members were not selected thoughtfully and with care
  • Individual team members have very different expectations of one another and the team as a whole

Comprehension Check

  • What are possible costs/outcomes of conflict?
  • What are the causes of conflict? Can you give examples?

Managing Conflict

In general, there are several principles to managing conflict at any grade level among teams. To manage conflict, parties must first agree to negotiate. Second, team members must gather various points of view; communication is key during this step. Third, team members must find common interests. Fourth, team members need to create win-win options. Fifth, team members need to evaluate the options identified. Finally, team members need to reach an agreement.

When looking at who should be responsible for conflict resolution, school leaders (such as principals and lead teachers) need to be prepared to help aid in conflict resolution and model positive behaviors for other staff members.

In the case of conflict among school personnel and families of students with disabilities, there are specific steps that must be followed under IDEA—you may hear this called “going to due process”.

Comprehension Check

  1. What are the six steps outlined by Girard and Koch (1996) for managing conflict?
  2. What steps might principals or school leaders need to take in resolving conflict?
  3. What are some possible areas of disagreement among school personnel and families that might lead to conflict requiring due process proceedings?

Due Process Procedures

Free appropriate public education (FAPE) is typically at the heart of due process conflicts.

Initially, parents or schools may request a mediation hearing. A neutral third party is involved who can work with both parties. Unless both the school and family waive the right to mediation, this step is required prior to more legally formal proceedings. It is beneficial to resolve conflict during a mediation meeting as “due process” is time consuming and expensive.

If a resolution is not reached within a specified time frame, the parties will present their “cases” to an impartial hearing officer. If a resolution is not reached following this hearing, the State Education Agency will provide a review of the local hearing and render a decision.

If a resolution is not reached after the state review, either party may file a civil court action.

Comprehension Check

  1. What is the purpose of a resolution meeting?
  2. What are the next steps if a resolution meeting is not successful?
  3. What are some reasons for why schools might want to avoid due process proceedings regarding conflicts with families?

Case Studies

13.1 Illustrative Case Study

The seventh grade level team at Mathes Middle School has reached a point of conflict among members. The overall goals of the team and its purpose are to identify, implement, and evaluate strategies to improve students’ writing skills. Initially, the team functioned quite well as the focus was on the English Language Arts (ELA) teachers. The team identified, implemented, and evaluated strategies that ELA teachers could use in their classrooms that would support writing across the curriculum. The ELA teachers were excited initially about working toward helping the seventh grade students to be better writers in the content areas of math, science, and social studies. However, over time the ELA teachers began to feel that they were doing all the work. When these feelings were first presented at a team meeting, the response of several content teachers was that writing instruction was the job of the ELA teachers.

The team used the principles identified by Girard and Koch (1996). First, the team members agreed to have a meeting and try to reach some kind of a resolution. It was clear to everyone, regardless of their own personal feelings, that the team members were losing their motivation and focus and the long-term outcome would not likely benefit the students. Second, at the meeting, all members expressed their viewpoints. They all agreed to take no more than two minutes and not to interrupt or comment on others’ viewpoints. The team met again and identified where the common interests were. All agreed that improving students’ writing skills were in everyone’s best interest. They decided they could begin with an understanding that that was the aim.

Team members met again to discuss options. One possibility was that the ELA teachers would continue the writing instruction. A second option was that the content areas teachers would take on the responsibility for teaching students’ writing skills. Each of these was viewed as a win-lose option for one group or the other. Everyone agreed that having the ELA teachers continue to devote time in their classes to improve content area writing was desirable, but also that the ELA teachers would provide in-service on encouraging writing in each content area and suggestions for writing activities and evaluating writing in content areas. In this way, all team members were directly invested in student’s learning outcomes. Also, the ELA teachers could eventually pare back instruction on content area writing and focus on other areas of the ELA curriculum. Content area teachers would eventually become more proficient in encouraging and monitoring writing skills relevant to their own teaching areas. All team members agreed that this option would likely continue the team’s momentum and improve students’ writing skills.

Finally, the team wrote out an agreement as to who was responsible for what, timelines for implementation and evaluation of the agreement plan, and, finally, when to meet to discuss and revise the plan as needed. No one on the team felt she/he got exactly what she/he wanted, but each team member felt the team was back on track and working well together again.

13.2 Application Case Study

The IEP team for Treavor Baldwin met a few days ago. Certain members of the team from the school personnel had disagreements about the services for Treavor. Treavor’s parents had several concerns that reflected the disagreements among the school personnel. Unfortunately, by the end of the IEP team meeting (it was the first annual review of Treavor’s initial IEP), Treavor’s parents and school team members were not prepared to sign the IEP and agree to implementation. Treavor is in the third grade and has identified specific learning disabilities in reading (word recognition, fluency, and comprehension) as well as in writing (phonetic spellings, poor legibility, poor punctuation, limited vocabulary in sentence use).

Conflict arose during the discussion of where services would be provided and what was Treavor’s least restrictive environment. Some school team members felt Treavor needed to spend more time in a resource room setting for small group and individualized instruction in reading and writing. These school team members believed Treavor would need up to two hours per day in the resource room. In order to free up that much time in Treavor’s schedule, it was suggested he have more limited time in “specials” such as art and music.

Other school team members felt that one hour per day at the maximum was sufficient, and they were concerned that Treavor would be missing too much time from his general education class and specials as well. Treavor’s parents did not want Treavor regularly scheduled to be served in the resource room at all. He had had all services delivered in the general education classroom for his initial IEP. District achievement testing did suggest Treavor had lost some ground, so to speak, in comparison to his peers (i.e., they were making more progress in reading and writing than Treavor, and the gap between his skills and his peers’ was growing somewhat wider).

Assume you are in a position to influence the team and its workings.

  1. What step(s) would you take to resolve the conflict without due process proceedings?
  2. What might be some win-win options for the parties involved?
  3. What steps would need to be taken if the conflicts cannot be resolved within the IEP team?

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Chapter 14: Understanding Families

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

  1. Name the four subsystems of families
  2. Cite the seven family functions
  3. Identify barriers to family participation as identified by parents and school personnel
  4. Cite examples of how those barriers might be overcome

Principles of Defining Families and Family Functions

As educators, we must have an inclusive view of the fabric that makes up the student’s family rather than assuming a viewpoint in concert with previous particular notions about what is a family and how it should work.

Family by Definition

A family is the basic unit of society in which a group of individuals coexist to meet a group’s needs as well as individual needs collectively.

This definition has changed dramatically from the stereotypical husband, wife, and two children model.

Family Systems

A family system or family unit is made up of members who are influenced by factors both internal and external to the family.

There are four family subsystems:

  1. Marital partner subsystem
  2. Parental subsystem
  3. Sibling subsystem
  4. Extra-familial subsystem

Comprehension Check

  1. What is your definition of a family?
  2. Name the four subsystems of families.
  3. Describe the elements to these four subsystems.

Family Functions and Interactions

Family Functions
  • Economic needs–contending with obtaining and spending money
  • Daily care needs–this may be an area of tremendous need in families with children who have special needs
  • Socialization needs–not absolutely necessary, but adds to the quality of life
  • Recreational needs–not absolutely necessary, but adds to the quality of life
  • Self-definition needs–the way each member of the family defines him/herself as an individual
  • Affection needs–ways in which each family member has opportunities to know they are loved
  • Educational/vocational needs–the needs in which educators have the most capabilities

Comprehension Check

  1. Name the seven family functions.
  2. List an example for each of the family functions.
Effective Family Interactions

First, communication should be clear and open. Any messages that are sent should have appropriate content and feeling. Additionally, roles and responsibilities should be clear but maintain flexibility to address changing situations. Children need to have clear boundaries, but members must also understand that changes in time and circumstances may lead to adjustments in each individual’s role.

Comprehension Check

  1. What is a family?
  2. What are the four subsystems of families?
  3. What are the needs of families? What are some potential negative impacts of each need when it is not being met?
  4. Provide indicators that families are having successful interactions.

Barriers to Family Involvement

Logistical barriers–these barriers involve complications that families may have arranging time away from home or work.

Communication barriers–when families do not share the same cultural or socioeconomic backgrounds of school personnel, communication styles may differ.

Barriers resulting from misunderstandings–develop when there is a lack of understanding of schools. Families may be overwhelmed by or simply unfamiliar with the complex ways in which a school and its personnel “work”.

Barriers Identified by Professionals

Parental apathy–parental or caregiver apathy can be a major obstacle to involving families in a child’s education. This perception of professionals may be exacerbated when there are cultural/linguistic and/or socioeconomic differences between the majority teacher culture and that of families.

Time constraints–educational professionals, like families, also have limited time for collaboration and encouraging the collaboration of families in school.

Lack of professional expertise–some educators may feel they lack the skills and knowledge to interact effectively with and support families.

Comprehension Check

  1. What are three barriers identified by parents/caregivers for their involvement in school?
  2. What are some strategies for overcoming each barrier?
  3. What are three barriers identified by professionals for involving families in school?
  4. What are some strategies for overcoming each barrier?

Case Studies

14.1 Illustrative Case Study

Mrs. McDonald is a first year teacher who has been assigned to teach second grade. She is new to the area and is unfamiliar with the community. Mrs. McDonald wants to get to know her families better. Consequently, she invites each family to complete a survey in which she asks the following:

Tell me about your parenting style.
How do you feel about your child’s school?
What concerns do you have for your child this year?
How would you describe your relationship with your child?
What limitations might you have this year in supporting your child?

Before sending her survey out, Mrs. McDonald shares her idea and a draft of the survey with her principal and with the school counselor. The school is situated in an area that has a high population of military families and as such there are many families who transfer into the school and out of the school throughout the year. The principal and counselor share this information with Mrs. McDonald. They also share that because so many families move throughout the year, it is hard to get to know them personally and to build collaborative relationships. They encourage Mrs. McDonald to send her survey home to her new class in both print and electronic form to accommodate all parents. They set a date and time to get back together to go through the surveys.

After two weeks, Mrs. McDonald is thrilled to have all but one survey back. She decides to call her remaining family and verbally communicates with this last family on the phone to gather their information and input. After collating her data, Mrs. McDonald meets with her principal and counselor to review the information.

As a team, the three educators quickly identify that many of the families have economic needs and are working multiple jobs. The families identify concerns that they cannot spend a significant amount of time helping with homework, as they struggle to meet economic and daily care needs. The families clearly illustrate their love for their children and their intentions that the school will provide not only a strong education for their children but strong friendships.

This team decides to respond proactively by sharing the overall themes with the other teachers during a staff meeting. At that time, the team discussed the implications for how they can continue to collaborate proactively with their families. They decide to implement the following components to support their families:

  • Limit requests for during the school day activities
  • Communicate with parents about integrative educational opportunities
  • Reach out to parents during after-school pickup times
  • Continue to communicate and collaborate in both print and electronic forms

14.2 Application Case Study

Assume you are a third grade teacher and your principal tells you that in your upcoming new class you have two families that have been very challenging in the past. One mother has been very “over involved” and demands to walk her child to the classroom every day to help her unpack. She also frequently has lunch with the class and writes the teachers for constant updates on how her child is doing in class, both academically and socially.

Additionally, you have a family with a child who will be in your room that has demonstrated considerable learning difficulties. The previous teacher spent the entire year trying to meet with the family to start special education testing for the child, but was completely unsuccessful communicating with them regarding their child’s needs and obtaining their permission for an evaluation for eligibility for special education and related services.

Divide your own classroom (college/university classroom) into pairs or small groups and consider and discuss each of the following:

  1. What are the possible barriers that might be in place for each situation?
  2. What strategies would you utilize to collaborate with each family?
  3. What resources might you call upon to support your collaboration with each family?
  4. What outcomes would you develop for each family?

Return to a large group and compare your pair/small group responses. Were different ideas to support the families generated? Were different principles, practices, and barriers identified in different pairs/small groups?

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Chapter 15: Strategies for Effective Family Communication and Collaboration

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

  1. Name the essential elements to consider when planning a family conference
  2. Cite important considerations inherent in a successful family conference
  3. Identify strategies after a conference to facilitate family involvement
  4. Understand ways to communicate with families
  5. Define strategies to promote family involvement

Principles of Family Collaboration

Essential Elements to Planning a Family Conference

Some conferences may be planned as school-wide events, such as school open house nights. These conferences are important, as they can reach multiple families at one time or allow some families to feel more comfortable.

Other conferences may only involve one family and their child. It is important that these conferences are not only held when delivering negative news.

Conferences hold four main purposes:

  1. Exchange of information
  2. Develop rapport
  3. Promote student achievement and progress
  4. Mediate concerns or problems
Planning for the Conference

Notification–Notify parties well in advance that a meeting will occur

Preparation–Review any information or data needed for the meeting

Arranging the Environment–Create a warm, welcoming environment

Conducting the Conference

Make Introductions–In some cultures, “getting down to business” too fast can been seen as rude.

Incorporate Input–Allow family members to speak as early and often as possible

After the Meeting
  • Review with the student the outcomes of the meeting whether he/she attended or not—assuming you have parental/caregiver consent to do so.
  • Review the outcomes of the meetings with other professionals or stakeholders who were not able to attend and who have a need to know those outcomes.
  • Communicate the action items and any critical next dates.
  • Take time to reflect and evaluate how the conference went.

Comprehension Check

  1. What steps should be taken in preplanning a collaborative family conference?
  2. What steps should be taken in conducting a collaborative family conference?
  3. What steps should be taken in follow-up to a collaborative family practice?

Additional Ways to Collaborate with Families

It is important that educators incorporate other communication ideas throughout a school year and beyond that are not specifically related to conferences. Some ways to do this are through:

  • Written Strategies
  • Handbooks
  • Handouts
  • Newsletters
  • Daily Communications
  • Report Cards, Grading, and Progress Reports
  • Occasional Messages
Additional Ways to Communicate and Collaborate

Additional strategies that encourage family involvement might include unplanned meetings, group family meetings, or innovative usage of technology.

Group Family Meetings

For group family meetings, always be well prepared. Make sure the invitations to such meetings are planned well in advance. It is important that families have plenty of time to arrange attending.

Group meetings can provide an opportunity to give information to larger numbers of people at one time, answer questions, and listen to comments; therefore, they can be efficient.

Keep in mind the following list of possible options as you build collaboration and family involvement throughout the year.

  1. Establish a network of mentor families who can provide information and support
  2. Note any school-wide committees or task forces that need family members
  3. Compile a list of volunteering opportunities
  4. Identify any special skills or knowledge parents/caregivers may possess and inquire if they would be willing to mentor a student, make a presentation, or provide assistance in some other way
  5. Devise in-services for parents or informational meetings
  6. Encourage and support participation in the school’s parent teacher organization

Comprehension Check

  1. What are four advantages to using written communication?
  2. What are the six written communication strategies presented? How could one use each strategy to promote family involvement?
  3. What are three important cautions for educators when using written communication with families?
  4. What are considerations for educators in deciding how to address and set limits for unplanned meetings with family members?
  5. What are strategies for promoting involvement of families in group family meetings?
  6. What are strategies for promoting family involvement in attending and participating in school activities and events?

Case Studies

15.1 Illustrative Case Study

Mrs. Peters is a third grade teacher who needs to have a conference with one of her new families. The student in her class, Michael, has joined the group later in the school year and after a week, Mrs. Peters is starting to have some concerns. Michael is struggling to make new friends and has been in trouble in the cafeteria twice this first week. Mrs. Peters does not yet have Michael’s school records from his previous school, but she has noticed that Michael does not yet seem at the same academic level as the other third graders in the room.

Mrs. Peters begins by preparing for the conference. She writes a note home to the family asking if they can meet at any time that is convenient for the parents. In the note she sends a form with questions designed to gather more information about Michael and to help Mrs. Peters prepare for the conference. On the form she asks the family:

Tell me about Michael’s strengths.

What goals do you have for Michael this year?

Do you have any concerns for Michael’s transition to our school?

In what ways do you think Michael learns best?

What would you like me to know about Michael?

Is there anything specific you would like to discuss when we meet?

Before sending home her request to meet with the family, Mrs. Peters shares her plan and form with her principal and with the school counselor. She asks if either of them might be available to attend the conference to help make the family feel welcome and to share any additional resources that could be helpful as they transition to the area. They agree to attend and appreciate the form that she has created to gather more information about Michael before the conference time. Mrs. Peters sends home the note and form with Michael. She waits three days, and upon not hearing back from the family, follows up with a phone call. Michael’s mom is apologetic about not responding yet, as she has been overwhelmed settling into their new house. Together they set a time that is convenient for Michael’s parents and she promises to send in the form tomorrow.

Upon receiving the form, Mrs. Peter’s learns that Michael’s parents are concerned for his academic and social transition as well. Michael did not want to move from his previous home and has been acting out. He also shut down academically at his previous school when he found out about the move. Mrs. Peters shares this information with her principal and school counselor. Mrs. Peters also has Michael take a reading and writing performance assessment to gather a preliminary idea of his academic levels. They all attend the meeting to support Michael and his family. During the conference, they discuss everyone’s concerns regarding Michael’s academic and social transition and develop the following action plan. Michael’s family will be given a mentor family with a son Michael’s age to help ease his transition to the school and to help build his social network. Mrs. Peters will carefully monitor Michael’s performance in class with the intervention specialist’s input to attend to Michael’s needs. The school counselor will meet with a small group during lunch to help Michael as he makes friends.

Before the conference ends, Mrs. Peters schedules a convenient date and time for everyone to meet again in six weeks to determine how the plan is going and to see what Michael needs next. Mrs. Peters discovers that emails are easier for Michael’s family. After everyone leaves, Mrs. Peters summarizes the notes taken during the conference and emails them out to the group with a reminder of their determined next meeting date and time.

15.2 Application Case Study

Assume you are a seventh grade teacher in an urban district. Your school traditional has seen very small numbers of parents and caregivers attend conferences, school day activities, and after-school special events. Knowing how important it is to improve collaborative relationships between school and home, your principal has developed a task force of school representatives throughout your K–8 school and has asked you to be the leader.

Divide your own classroom (college/university classroom) into pairs or small groups and consider and discuss each of the following:

  1. What are the possible barriers that are keeping parents and caregivers from attending?
  2. How can you address each of those barriers in new and creative ways?
  3. What strategies would you utilize to reach out to each family?
  4. What resources might you call upon to support your initiatives?

Return to a large group and compare your pair/small group responses. Were different ideas to support the families generated? What different principles, practices, and barriers were identified in different pairs/small groups?

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Chapter 16: Collaborating with Diverse Families and Learners

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

  1. Identify diversity in its various forms and the impact on the family and learner
  2. Cite barriers to working with diverse families and learners
  3. Identify strategies for collaborating with diverse families and learners
  4. Understand how professionals need to change
  5. Provide ways to promote diversity through collaboration among various stakeholders

Building Collaboration

Educators value and embrace the critical importance of collaborating with families. However, it is even more important that educators evaluate with a critical lens what they are doing (or not doing) to reach out to their diverse families.

Identifying Diversity and the Impacts on the Family and Learner

Families in today’s society are more dynamic and diverse than ever before. It is important that educators use a broader lens of what constitutes a family beyond the traditional “mother, father, and two siblings” stereotype of the past. Remember three things when working with a diverse family:

  1. No culture is inherently better than another
  2. Though there may be some culturally based behaviors, these behaviors are always on a spectrum and should not be “assigned” to any given individual
  3. Each individual is an individual and may or may not adopt cultural behaviors often assigned to someone from a particular cultural background

A critical component to increasing family involvement is the collaborative nature that exists between the school and the family.

Comprehension Check

  1. What is your definition of diversity?
  2. Name three factors to consider when working with families.
  3. Describe the elements critical to developing collaboration with diverse families.

Principles of Inclusive Collaboration

It is important not to assume that lack of participation equals lack of interest in the child or the school.

Barriers to Working with Diverse Families
  • Work challenges
  • Emotional challenges
  • Language challenges
  • Parent access challenges
  • Cultural dissonance challenges
  • Self-imposed challenges

Comprehension Check

  1. What are the six challenges that can create barriers for diverse families?
  2. Identify three outcomes from those barriers for diverse families.
  3. Give examples for each of the six challenges that prevent families from feeling included in the school setting.
Strategies for Collaborating with Diverse Families

The National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) has developed recommendations to enhance collaboration and break down barriers:

  • A school must always be attentive for any structural changes that are needed to support family collaboration.
  • Communication styles are different for each individual and for different cultural groups. Being knowledgeable in one’s own communication style as well as others’ is important.
  • Try to ensure that there are no surprises for families that are already feeling apprehensive and uncomfortable in their relationship with schools.
  • School and family collaboration will benefit from regular and positive communication.
  • Conversations that emphasize strengths rather than weaknesses will provide benefits.

There a four steps to follow when planning to meet with diverse families:

  1. Take initiative to meet and get to know the families.
  2. Continue to build that foundation throughout the time with the family.
  3. Consistently make sure to maintain and support family relationships.
  4. Take time to assess, reflect, and grow.
Professional Change

It is an unfortunate truth that educators often make assumptions about families long before they should be made.

Professionals at all times must identify and address any bias or deficit views they may be adapting.

Promote Diversity through Collaboration with Stakeholders

Try to maintain an open communication policy with families (in your classroom, if not the entire school).

Try to build active parent associations and advisory councils in the school.

Be varied and creative about the ways the school involves parent volunteers.

Do everything possible to build an inclusive school culture.

Share responsibility for success and failures among all stakeholders.

Comprehension Check

  1. What are at least six ways to help families feel a part of the school system?
  2. Identify three questions that educators should consistently ask themselves.
  3. Describe four ways all stakeholders can reach out to include diverse families.

Case Studies

16.1 Illustrative Case Study

As an intervention specialist, Mrs. Kramer knows how important it is to include families in every way possible, but often struggles to make it happen in meaningful ways. In order to improve upon her practice, she asks the teacher education department to partner with her. She contacts their intervention specialist program to see if they will conduct an audit of her program and the ways in which she engages with families. A professor at the university, Dr. Ritchey, specializing in families and collaboration is interested in partnering with Mrs. Kramer to engage in a self-study and see what they can learn together.

Dr. Ritchey visits Mrs. Kramer’s classroom and asks her about the families she serves and what cultures are represented in her families. Though Mrs. Kramer knows she has one family that is Spanish, she does not have any other details about her families. Dr. Ritchey gives Mrs. Kramer the first task of investigating the diversity that is represented in their school building and in the families that she serves.

When Dr. Ritchey returns, she has the opportunity to observe Mrs. Kramer conducting a parent-teacher conference with a family. In the room, Dr. Ritchey finds eight individuals and one parent of Turkish descent. Dr. Ritchey notices that everyone is sitting on one side of the table with the exception of the parent. Dr. Ritchey also notices that the parent is not speaking but is nodding almost constantly.

After a few minutes, Dr. Ritchey asks the parent if she understands the conference thus far and if she has any questions. The parent shares that she actually does not speak proficient English and is struggling to understand, especially the educational words. Dr. Ritchey suggests that the conference be postponed until an interpreter can be secured for the next time. Everyone agrees and apologies are made to the mother.

After the conference, Mrs. Kramer and Dr. Ritchey meet to make some goals together. Mrs. Kramer recognizes that she has made assumptions about her families that have not been beneficial for anyone. As a result, Mrs. Kramer makes the following commitments:

  • Developing a more open-door policy in which parents can come in at different times just to talk about their child’s progress in an informal setting
  • Studying different cultures more in depth that are represented in the school to support diversity throughout the year and in particular in one-on-one settings
  • Surveying parents (in their native language to learn more about their language and cultural needs) at the beginning of the school year
  • Developing an in-service with the help of Dr. Richey for the whole staff to consider ways in which they can be more welcoming and considerate of their diverse families

16.2 Application Case Study

Assume you are an intervention specialist in your urban situated building. Your school serves a significant number of families that are diverse both culturally and socioeconomically. Though you are motivated and committed to supporting your diverse families, you now that your upbringing and previous experiences are somewhat limited, and you are nervous about how to address and meet the needs of your diverse families.

Divide your own classroom (college/university classroom) into pairs or small groups and consider and discuss each of the following:

  1. Identify ways you could accidently offend or send a negative message to a diverse family.
  2. How can you address each of these in a more positive manner?
  3. What strategies would you utilize to support any family of diversity?
  4. What resources might you call upon to support your diverse families?

Return to a large group and compare your pair/small group responses. Share together the mistaken ways in which diverse families might be excluded and what you might do to be more inclusive. What resource and strategies were identified that could help build a more inclusive environment?

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Chapter 17: Strategies for Identifying Community Resources and Working with Community Partners

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

  1. Define the features of community collaboration
  2. Identify practices for effective interagency collaboration
  3. Describe ways in which all involved parties can collaborate

Features Affecting Community Collaboration

Communication

While caregivers have no legal obligation to keep open lines of communication with schools, schools do have an obligation to keep families and community stakeholders informed.

Different types of communication, and how those forms of communication may serve a goal, should always be considered.

Participation

While it is appropriate to conduct some meetings with restricted attendance, many collaborative activities should encourage everyone to be involved.

Research has indicated that parent/caregiver involvement in the day-to-day operations of a school tends to strengthen academic performance and lower negative behavioral issues, such as absenteeism and truancy.

Increased participation from caregivers may expand contacts and resources for the school system, expand the expertise of a subject area, or provide direct financial assistance.

Governance

In order to build true collaborative relationships, it is critical that community members be involved in the governance of the school in some way. This may help negate some unnecessary and divisive disagreements.

Comprehension Check

  1. What are the three defining features of establishing school-community collaborative relationships? What are important considerations in making each of the three features successful?
  2. What are three benefits to community member participation to enhance the school? Give examples.

Practices for Effective Interagency Collaboration

Ways in Which All Involved Come Together

One way in which schools have adapted to an expanded role in school-family-community collaboration is by becoming full-service (or community) schools.

Full-service schools, through collaboration with community agencies, offer entry to or information about such services as physical health services, mental health services, employment services, child care, parent/caregiver education, case management and referral for services to agencies, recreation, cultural events, and community policing and organizing neighborhood watch programs.

Ways in Which All Involved Come Together

IDEA, in particular, supports this concept of providing referral and access to community services for families with children with disabilities. In general, for all students, when families are able to reduce the stressors of other family needs, children’s academic and behavioral performance also tends to be improved.

Whether in specific full-service schools or through broader community collaboration, it is sometimes necessary for schools and community agencies to formalize their working relationships. Interagency agreements are written agreements that commit schools and agencies to work together, determine which is responsible for what services and costs, and how each agency will engage in their collaborative relationships. Such agreements are particularly important in early intervention services (in transition from early intervention to preschool programs) and in transition from school to post-school living for students with disabilities.

Comprehension Check

  1. What is a full-service or community school? What are some services that might be available in such a school?
  2. What is an interagency agreement?
  3. What two transitions are mandated by IDEA?

Case Studies

17.1 Illustrative Case Study

As a new middle school teacher, Ms. Kuebel is struggling to meet the needs of her students in her classroom. In addition to her daily lesson planning, teaching, and data assessment review process, she is frequently receiving requests from parents. The parents and caregivers are frequently looking for not only educational advice but support at home.

For example, one parent wrote this week stating she wanted to come in and meet with Ms. Kuebel but was unable to get a ride and she did not own a car. She added a note to Ms. Kuebel wondering if she knew of any agencies that might be able to help her obtain a car.

Another parent wrote to tell Ms. Kuebel that they would not be able to receive any electronic information, as they did not have a computer nor could the school call, as the family phone had been disconnected and their limited budget did not have room for a cell phone plan. The parent asked if the school had any technology available for check out to provide the electronic and phone call options.

Finally, Ms. Kuebel has been noticing that one of her students comes to school in the morning hungry, voraciously so on Mondays. After some careful questions, Ms. Kuebel determined that there was a very limited amount of food available to eat at home so that the student was only dependably eating breakfast and lunch on school days.

Upon analyzing these numerous needs of her students (and knowing that these may only be a few of many) Ms. Kuebel decides to take action. She asks her leadership team to partner with her in calling a meeting in which partners from multiple community support services are invited. As a team, each collaborative agency identifies the services that they could offer students and their families. A master list is organized for dissemination.

In addition, space is allocated within the building for the different collaborative agencies to utilize so that services and conversations can be facilitated for parents and caregivers within the school context. In this way, the building is off to becoming a full-service school with a shared mission of supporting families and students in all ways possible.

17.2 Application Case Study

Assume you are a brand new teacher getting started in your first year in a community that is also brand new to you. Your school serves a significant number of families that have a multitude of needs, including economic, education, and daily care needs. Though you are motivated and committed to supporting your families, you know that because you are new to teaching and to the community, your knowledge of outside and additional resources is significantly limited. You want to help your families in any and all ways possible, but you are not sure where to start.

With a partner or in small groups, explore what you might do to locate and provide support to your families in need. Consider the following questions as you work:

  • Who are some experienced and knowledgeable individuals in your building who could help you get started?
  • What are some national resources that you have previously heard about or utilized that might also be available in your new community?
  • What are some Internet resources that you might access to help you in your search?

Return to a large group and compare your pair/small group responses. Share the resources that you have found and the resources you have not found.

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